Ameliorating replicative senescence of human bone marrow stromal cells by PSMB5 overexpression

Multipotent human bone marrow stromal cells (hBMSCs) potentially serve as a source for cell-based therapy in regenerative medicine. However, in vitro expansion was inescapably accompanied with cell senescence, characterized by inhibited proliferation and compromised pluripotency. We have previously demonstrated that this aging process is closely associated with reduced 20S proteasomal activity, with down-regulation of rate-limiting catalytic β-subunits particularly evident. In the present study, we confirmed that proteasomal activity directly contributes to senescence of hBMSCs, which could be reversed by overexpression of the β5-subunit (PSMB5). Knocking down PSMB5 led to decreased proteasomal activity concurrent with reduced cell proliferation in early-stage hBMSCs, which is similar to the senescent phenotype observed in late-stage cells. In contrast, overexpressing PSMB5 in late-stage cells efficiently restored the normal activity of 20S proteasomes and promoted cell growth, possibly via upregulating the Cyclin D1/CDK4 complex. Additionally, PSMB5 could enhance cell resistance to oxidative stress, as evidenced by the increased cell survival upon exposing senescent hBMSCs to hydrogen peroxide. Furthermore, PSMB5 overexpression retained the pluripotency of late-stage hBMSCs by facilitating their neural differentiation both in vitro and in vivo. Collectively, our work reveals a critical role of PSMB5 in 20S proteasome-mediated protection against replicative senescence, pointing to a possible strategy for maintaining the integrity of culture-expanded hBMSCs by manipulating the expression of PSMB5.     

Knockdown of human deubiquitinase PSMD14 induces cell cycle arrest and senescence

The PSMD14 (POH1, also known as Rpn11/MPR1/S13/CepP1) protein within the 19S complex (19S cap; PA700) is responsible for substrate deubiquitination during proteasomal degradation. The role of PSMD14 in cell proliferation and senescence was explored using siRNA knockdown in carcinoma cell lines. Our results reveal that down-regulation of PSMD14 by siRNA transfection had a considerable impact on cell viability causing cell arrest in the G0-G1 phase, ultimately leading to senescence. The molecular events associated with decreased cell proliferation, cell cycle arrest and senescence include down-regulation of cyclin B1-CDK1-CDC25C, down-regulation of cyclin D1 and up-regulation of p21^/Cip and p27^/Kip1. Most notably, phosphorylation of the retinoblastoma protein was markedly reduced in PSMD14 knockdown cells. A comparative study with PSMB5, a subunit of the 20S proteasome, revealed that PSMB5 and PSMD14 have different effects on cell cycle, senescence and associated molecular events. These data support the view that the 19S and 20S subunits of the proteasome have distinct biological functions and imply that targeting 19S and 20S would have distinct molecular consequences on tumor cells.     

Central role of the proteasome in senescence and survival of human fibroblasts: induction of a senescence-like phenotype upon its inhibition and resistance to stress upon its activation

Normal human fibroblasts undergo a limited number of divisions in culture and progressively they reach a state of irreversible growth arrest, a process termed as replicative senescence. The proteasome is the major cellular proteolytic machinery, the function of which is impaired during replicative senescence. However, the exact causes of its malfunction in these conditions are unknown. Using WI38 fibroblasts as a model for cellular senescence we have observed reduced levels of proteasomal peptidase activities coupled with increased levels of both oxidized and ubiquitinated proteins in senescent cells. We have found the catalytic subunits of the 20 S complex and subunits of the 19 S regulatory complex to be down-regulated in senescent cells. This is accompanied by a decrease in the level of both 20 S and 26 S complexes. Partial inhibition of proteasomes in young cells caused by treatment with specific inhibitors induced a senescence-like phenotype, thus demonstrating the fundamental importance of the proteasome for retaining cellular maintenance and homeostasis. Stable overexpression of beta1 and beta5 subunits in WI38 established cell lines was shown to induce elevated expression levels of beta1 subunit in beta5 transfectants and vice versa. Transfectants possess increased proteasome activities and most importantly, increased capacity to cope better with various stresses. In summary these data demonstrate the central role of the proteasome during cellular senescence and survival as well as provide insights toward a better understanding of proteasome regulation.     

Proteasome response to interferon-gamma is altered in senescent human fibroblasts

We have investigated immunoproteasomes in human fibroblasts during replicative senescence. Unlike levels of constitutive proteasome catalytic subunits and 26S proteasome regulatory subunits, levels of immunosubunits did not decrease dramatically in senescent cells. However, the induction of immunosubunits by interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) was lost in senescent cells. In contrast, levels of the 11S proteasome regulator, PA28, were increased by IFN-gamma even in senescent cells, and both immunosubunits and PA28 increased with the reversible growth arrest in confluent cell cultures. The results highlight differences in the mechanisms of regulation of immunoproteasomes compared to constitutive proteasomes and in the irreversible growth arrest of senescent cells compared to reversible contact-induced growth arrest.     

Intermediates in the formation of mouse 20S proteasomes: implications for the assembly of precursor beta subunits.

The assembly of individual proteasome subunits into catalytically active mammalian 20S proteasomes is not well understood. Using subunit-specific antibodies, we characterized both precursor and mature proteasome complexes. Antibodies to PSMA4 (C9) immunoprecipitated complexes composed of alpha, precursor beta and processed beta subunits. However, antibodies to PSMA3 (C8) and PSMB9 (LMP2) immunoprecipitated complexes made up of alpha and precursor beta but no processed beta subunits. These complexes possess short half-lives, are enzymatically inactive and their molecular weight is approximately 300 kDa. Radioactivity chases from these complexes into mature, long-lived approximately 700 kDa proteasomes. Therefore, these structures represent precursor proteasomes and are probably made up of two rings: one containing alpha subunits and the other, precursor beta subunits. The assembly of precursor proteasomes occurs in at least two stages, with precursor beta subunits PSMB2 (C7-I), PSMB3 (C10-II), PSMB7 (Z), PSMB9 (LMP2) and PSMB10 (LMP10) being incorporated before others [PSMB1 (C5), PSMB6 (delta), and PSMB8 (LMP7)]. Proteasome maturation (processing of the beta subunits and juxtaposition of the two beta rings) is accompanied by conformational changes in the (outer) alpha rings, and may be inefficient. Finally, interferon-gamma had no significant effect on the half-lives or total amounts of precursor or mature proteasomes.     

Identification of the Immunoproteasome as a Novel Regulator of Skeletal Muscle Differentiation

While many of the molecular details of myogenesis have been investigated extensively, the function of immunoproteasomes (i-proteasomes) in myogenic differentiation remains unknown. We show here that the mRNA of i-proteasome subunits, the protein levels of constitutive and inducible proteasome subunits, and the proteolytic activities of the 20S and 26S proteasomes were significantly upregulated during differentiation of skeletal muscle C2C12 cells. Knockdown of the i-proteasome catalytic subunit PSMB9 by short hairpin RNA (shRNA) decreased the expression of both PSMB9 and PSMB8 without affecting other catalytic subunits of the proteasome. PSMB9 knockdown and the use of i-proteasome-specific inhibitors both decreased 26S proteasome activities and prevented C2C12 differentiation. Inhibition of the i-proteasome also impaired human skeletal myoblast differentiation. Suppression of the i-proteasome increased protein oxidation, and these oxidized proteins were found to be more susceptible to degradation by exogenous i-proteasomes. Downregulation of the i-proteasome also increased proapoptotic proteins, including Bax, as well as cleaved caspase 3, cleaved caspase 9, and cleaved poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), suggesting that impaired differentiation is likely to occur because of significantly increased apoptosis. These results demonstrate for the first time that i-proteasomes, independent of constitutive proteasomes, are critical for skeletal muscle differentiation of mouse C2C12 cells.     

Curcumin inhibits proteasome activity in triple-negative breast cancer cells through regulating p300/miR-142–3p/PSMB5 axis

BackgroundCurcumin functions as a proteasome inhibitor. However, the molecular mechanisms behind this action need more detailed explanations.PurposeThis study aimed to investigate the inhibitory effect of curcumin on 20S proteasome activity and to elucidate its exact mechanism in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) MDA-MB-231 cells.MethodsProteasomal peptidase activities were assayed using synthetic fluorogenic peptide substrates. Knockdown or overexpression of microRNA (miRNA or miR) or protein was used to investigate its functional effect on downstream cellular processes. BrdU (5‑bromo‑2′-deoxyuridine) assay was performed to identify cell proliferation. Western blot and quantitative real-time PCR(qRT-PCR) were carried out to determine protein abundance and miRNA expression, respectively. Correlations between protein expressions, miRNA levels, and proteasome activities were analyzed in TNBC tissues. Xenograft tumor model was performed to observe the in vivo effect of curcumin on 20S proteasome activity.ResultsCurcumin significantly reduced PSMB5 protein levels, accompanied with a reduction in the chymotrypsin-like (CT-l) activity of proteasome 20S core. Loss of PSMB5 markedly inhibited the CT-l activity of 20S proteasome. Furthermore, curcumin treatment significantly elevated miR-142–3p expression. PSMB5 was a direct target of miR-142–3p and its protein levels were negatively regulated by miR-142–3p. Moreover, histone acetyltransferase p300 suppressed miR-142–3p expression. Overexpression of p300 mitigated the promotive effect of curcumin on miR-142–3p expression. The correlations among p300 abundances, miR-142–3p levels, PSMB5 expressions, and the CT-l activities of 20S proteasome were evidenced in TNBC tissues. In addition, loss of p300 and PSMB5 reduced cell proliferation. Inhibition of miR-142–3p significantly attenuated the inhibitory impact of curcumin on cell proliferation. These curcumin-induced changes on p300, miR-142–3p, PSMB5, and 20S proteasome activity were further confirmed in in vivo solid tumor model.ConclusionThese findings demonstrated that curcumin suppressed p300/miR-142–3p/PSMB5 axis leading to the inhibition of the CT-l activity of 20S proteasome. These results provide a novel and alternative explanation for the inhibitory effect of curcumin on proteasome activity and also raised potential therapeutic targets for TNBC treatment.     

Regulation of gene expression of proteasomes (multi-protease complexes) during growth and differentiation of human hematopoietic cells.

We have reported that proteasomes are expressed at abnormally high levels in various hematopoietic tumor cells (Kumatori, A., Tanaka, K., Inamura, N., Sone, S., Ogura, T., Matsumoto, T., Tachikawa, T., Shin, S., and Ichihara, A. (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 87, 7071-7075). In the present study, we examined changes in the expressions of proteasomes during growth of peripheral T-lymphocytes from healthy adults and differentiation of human leukemic cell lines. Up-regulation of mRNAs encoding multiple proteasome subunits was observed during proliferation of resting T-cells induced by mitogens such as phytohemagglutinin and interleukin-2. In contrast, in vitro terminal differentiation into monocytic, granulocytic, and erythroid cells of various immature leukemic cell lines, such as HL-60 promyelocytic leukemia cells and K562 erythroleukemia cells, by various inducing agents caused rapid and marked down-regulation of proteasomes expression, independently of the cell type, direction of differentiation, or type of signal. The syntheses of proteasome subunits of 21-31 kDa and their associated components of 35-110 kDa, measured by [35S]methionine incorporation, were much higher in mitogen-activated T-cells and unstimulated HL-60 cells, which grow rapidly, than in resting and differentiated cells, indicating apparent correlations of the mRNA levels of proteasomes with their translational activities. However, immunochemically, no detectable difference in the cellular contents of proteasomes was found in these cells in induced and uninduced states for proliferation and differentiation, suggesting accelerated turnover of proteasomes in rapidly proliferating cells. Inhibition of proteasome expression by an antisense oligodeoxynucleotide for the largest proteasome subunit, C2, caused partial arrest of cell cycle progression of T-lymphocytes, suggesting that up-regulation of proteasomes is indispensable for proliferation of the cells. We also observed that the nuclear fraction of proteasomes increased in proliferating T-cells and that proteasomes moved rapidly between the nucleus and cytoplasm during differentiation of HL-60 cells.     

Analysis of Drosophila 26 S proteasome using RNA interference.

We have utilized double-stranded RNA interference (RNAi) to examine the effects of reduced expression of individual subunits of the 26 S proteasome in Drosophila S2 cells. RNAi significantly decreased mRNA and protein levels of targeted subunits of both the core 20 S proteasome and the PA700 regulatory complex. Cells deficient in any of several 26 S proteasome subunits (e.g. d beta 5, dRpt1, dRpt2, dRpt5, dRpn2, and dRpn12) displayed decreased proteasome activity (as judged by hydrolysis of succinyl-Leu-Leu-Val-Tyr-aminomethylcoumarin), increased apoptosis, decreased cell proliferation without a specific block of the cell cycle, and accumulation of ubiquitinated cellular proteins. RNAi of many individual 26 S proteasome subunits promoted increased expression of many non-targeted subunits. This effect was not mimicked by chemical proteasome inhibitors such as lactacystin. Reduced expression of most targeted subunits disrupted the assembly of the 26 S proteasome. RNAi of six of eight targeted PA700 subunits disrupted that structure and caused accumulation of increased levels of uncapped 20 S proteasome. Notable exceptions included RNAi of dRpn10, a polyubiquitin binding subunit, and dUCH37, a ubiquitin isopeptidase. dRpn10-deficient cells showed a significant increase in succinyl-Leu-Leu-Val-Tyr-aminomethylcoumarin hydrolyzing activity of the 26 S proteasomes but accumulated polyubiquitinated proteins. d beta 5-Deficient cells had a phenotype similar to that of most PA700-deficient cells but also accumulated low molecular mass complexes containing subunits of the 20 S proteasome, probably representing unassembled precursors of the 20 S proteasomes. Cells deficient in several of the 26 S proteasome subunits were more resistant to otherwise toxic concentrations of various proteasome inhibitors. Our data suggest that those cells adapted to grow in conditions of impaired ubiquitin and proteasome-dependent protein degradation.     

Proteasome regulation,plant growth and stress tolerance

Plant cells contain a mixture of 26S and 20S proteasomes that mediate ubiquitin-dependent and ubiquitin-independent proteolysis, respectively. The 26S proteasome contains the 20S proteasome and one or two regulatory particles that are required for ubiquitin-dependent degradation. Comparative analyses of Arabidopsis proteasome mutants revealed that a decrease in 26S proteasome biogenesis causes heat shock hypersensitivity and reduced cell division rates that are compensated by increased cell expansion. Loss of 26S proteasome function also leads to an increased 20S proteasome biogenesis, which in turn enhances the cellular capacity to degrade oxidized proteins and thus increases oxidative stress tolerance. These findings suggest the intriguing possibility that 26S and 20S proteasome activities are regulated to control plant development and stress responses. This mini-review highlights some of the recent studies on proteasome regulation in plants.Key words: proteasome, cell division, ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis, ubiquitin-independent proteolysis, stress responses     

Induction of G1 arrest and apoptosis in human jurkat T cells by pentagalloylglucose through inhibiting proteasome activity and elevating p27Kip1, p21Cip1/WAF1, and Bax proteins

Pentagalloylglucose, which is found in many medicinal plants, can arrest the cell cycle at G(1) phase through down-regulation of cyclin-dependent kinases 2 and 4 and up-regulation of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors p27(Kip1) and p21(Cip1/WAF1) in human breast cancer cells. Pentagalloylglucose also induces apoptosis in human leukemic cells. However, the mechanisms by which pentagalloylglucose induces these effects is unclear. We now show that pentagalloylglucose inhibits the activities of purified 20 and 26 S proteasomes in vitro, the 26 S proteasome in Jurkat T cell lysates, and chymotrypsin-like activity of the 26 S proteasome in intact Jurkat T cells. The turnover of p27(Kip1) and p21(Cip1/WAF1), which is necessary for cell cycle progression mediated by proteasome degradation, was disrupted by treatment of human Jurkat T cells with pentagalloylglucose. This was shown by cycloheximide treatment and in vivo pulse-chase labeling experiments, and this effect correlated with the arrest of proliferation of Jurkat T cells at G(1). Inhibition of the proteasome by pentagalloylglucose and by the proteasome inhibitor MG132 caused accumulation of ubiquitin-tagged proteins in Jurkat T cells. The addition of pentagalloylglucose to Jurkat T cells enhanced the stability of the proteasome substrate Bax and increased cytochrome c release and apoptosis. Our findings suggest a mechanism for the effect of pentagalloylglucose on the cell cycle in human leukemic cells: that pentagalloylglucose down-regulates proteasome-mediated pathways because it is a proteasome inhibitor.     

Interplay between recombinant Hsp70 and proteasomes: proteasome activity modulation and ubiquitin-independent cleavage of Hsp70

The heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70, human HSPA1A) plays indispensable roles in cellular stress responses and protein quality control (PQC). In the framework of PQC, it cooperates with the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) to clear damaged and dysfunctional proteins in the cell. Moreover, Hsp70 itself is rapidly degraded following the recovery from stress. It was demonstrated that its fast turnover is mediated via ubiquitination and subsequent degradation by the 26S proteasome. At the same time, the effect of Hsp70 on the functional state of proteasomes has been insufficiently investigated. Here, we characterized the direct effect of recombinant Hsp70 on the activity of 20S and 26S proteasomes and studied Hsp70 degradation by the 20S proteasome in vitro. We have shown that the activity of purified 20S proteasomes is decreased following incubation with recombinant human Hsp70. On the other hand, high concentrations of Hsp70 activated 26S proteasomes. Finally, we obtained evidence that in addition to previously reported ubiquitin-dependent degradation, Hsp70 could be cleaved independent of ubiquitination by the 20S proteasome. The results obtained reveal novel aspects of the interplay between Hsp70 and proteasomes.     

Proteasome modulates mitochondrial function during cellular senescence

Proteasome plays fundamental roles in the removal of oxidized proteins and in the normal degradation of short-lived proteins. Previously we have provided evidence that the impairment in proteasome observed during the replicative senescence of human fibroblasts has significant effects on MAPK signaling, proliferation, life span, senescent phenotype, and protein oxidative status. These studies have demonstrated that proteasome inhibition and replicative senescence caused accumulation of intracellular protein carbonyl content. In this study, we have investigated the mechanisms by which proteasome dysfunction modulates protein oxidation during cellular senescence. The results indicate that proteasome inhibition during replicative senescence has significant effects on intra- and extracellular ROS production in vitro. The data also show that ROS impaired the proteasome function, which is partially reversible by antioxidants. Increases in ROS after proteasome inhibition correlated with a significant negative effect on the activity of most mitochondrial electron transporters. We propose that failures in proteasome during cellular senescence lead to mitochondrial dysfunction, ROS production, and oxidative stress. Furthermore, it is likely that changes in proteasome dynamics could generate a prooxidative condition at the immediate extracellular microenvironment that could cause tissue injury during aging, in vivo.     

Serial passage of MC3T3-E1 cells down-regulates proliferation during osteogenesis in vitro

Generally, fibroblast-like cells and other types of human cells have been used to demonstrate the principles of replicative senescence in vitro and in vivo. These cells go through three stages of proliferation, including vigorous proliferation, declining proliferation and quiescence or no proliferation. Any variation of this process occurring in osteoprogenitor cells may offer insight into the mechanism of age-related osteopaenia that predisposes individuals to osteoporosis and bone fractures. We selected MC3T3-E1 cells derived from mouse calvaria to study the mechanism of replicative senescence of pre-osteogenic cells because: (i) these cells constitute a well-known model for studying osteogenesis in vitro; (ii) they undergo a developmental sequence of proliferation and differentiation similar to primary cells in culture; and (iii) they show signs of replicative senescence. These cells were aged by multiple passaging before their use for studying growth kinetics and the effects of population density, effect of extracellular matrix (ECM), size and phases of the cell cycle. Our results show that (i) MC3T3-E1 cells go through the first two stages of proliferation in a manner similar to human cells, but escape the quiescent phase; (ii) the rate of proliferation is similar for low passage (LP) and high passage (HP) cells, but is decreased in very high passage cells (VHP); (iii) growth inhibition is observed using HP cells seeded at high density; (iv) HP ECM stimulates proliferation of both LP and HP cells; (v) a small increase in cell size is observed in HP cells, but no change is seen in the distribution analysis of their cell cycle; (vi) distribution analysis of the cell cycle of VHP cells reveals a decreased and an increased frequency of cells in S and G2 + M phases of their cell cycle, respectively. These results suggest that the mouse MC3T3-E1 cell line exhibits many of the cellular and molecular markers associated with replicative senescence in culture as defined by human cells, such as fibroblast-like cells. Alteration in the sensitivity of MC3T3-E1 cells to intercellular contact and increase in cell size are the primary factors contributing to decreased proliferation of HP cells.     

Polo-like kinase interacts with proteasomes and regulates their activity.

The polo-like kinase (Plk) has been shown to be associated with the anaphase-promoting complex at the transition from metaphase to anaphase and to regulate ubiquitination, the process that targets proteins for degradation by proteasomes. In this study, we have identified proteasomal proteins interacting with Plk by mass spectrometry and found that Plk and 20S proteasome subunits could be reversibly immunoprecipitated from both human CA46 cells and HEK 293 cells transfected with HA-Plk. Furthermore, both coprecipitated Plk and baculovirus-expressed Plk were able to phosphorylate proteasome subunits, and metabolic labeling studies indicate that Plk is partially responsible for the phosphorylation of 20S proteasome subunits C9 and C8 in vivo. In addition, phosphorylation of proteasomes by Plk enhanced proteolytic activity toward an artificial substrate Suc-L-L-V-Y-AMC in vitro and in vivo. Finally, we were also able to detect Plk associated with 26S proteasomes under certain conditions. Together our results suggest that Plk is an important mitotic regulator of proteasome activity.     

生物体衰老与复制衰老--体内与体外研究

体外连续培养的细胞在有人数的细胞分裂后,更新换代合成ＤＮＡ及分裂的能力,最后导致增殖能力的丧失,但基本代谢过程仍能维持,这种现象称为复制衰老。本文讨论了复制衰老现象存在的普遍性,描述了衰老细胞伯特征,对复制衰老和生物体衰老之间的联系进行了重点分析。现有的研究虽然还不完全,但都提示复制衰老是生物体衰老在细胞水平上的反映,并充分肯定了复制衰老是一个较好的研究机体衰老的模型。     

Proteasome structures affected by ionizing radiation

Exposure of cells to ionizing radiation slows the rate of degradation of substrates through the proteasome. Because the 26S proteasome degrades most short-lived cellular proteins, changes in its activity might significantly, and selectively, alter the life span of many signaling proteins and play a role in promoting the biological consequences of radiation exposure, such as cell cycle arrest, DNA repair, and apoptosis. Experiments were therefore undertaken to identify the radiation target that is associated with the proteasome. Regardless of whether they were irradiated before or after extraction and purification from human prostate cancer PC3 cells, 26S proteasomes remained intact but showed a rapid 30% to 50% dose-independent decrease in their three major enzymatic activities following exposure to 1 to 20 Gy. There was no effect on 20S proteasomes, suggesting that the radiation-sensitive target is located in the 19S cap of the 26S proteasome, rather than in the enzymatically active core. Because the base of the 19S cap contains an ATPase ring that mediates substrate unfolding, pore opening, and translocation of substrates into the catalytic chamber, we examined whether the ATPase activity of purified 26S proteasomes was affected. In fact, in vitro irradiation of proteasomes enhanced their ATPase activity. Furthermore, pretreatment with low concentrations of the free radical scavenger tempol was able to prevent both the radiation-induced decrease in proteolytic activity and the increase in ATP utilization, indicating that free radicals are mediators of these radiation-induced phenomena. Finally, we have shown that cell irradiation results in the accumulation of proteasome substrates: polyubiquitinated proteins and ornithine decarboxylase, indicating that the observed decrease in proteasome function is physiologically relevant.