L-Carnitine dissimilation in the gastrointestinal tract of the rat

Results of previous studies in this laboratory and others have suggested that L-carnitine is degraded in the gastrointestinal tract of the rat, perhaps by the action of indigenous flora. L-[methyl-14C]Carnitine was administered to rats either orally or intravenously in doses of 86 nmol or 124 mumol, and expired air, 48-h urine and fecal collections, and selected tissues at 48 h after isotope administration were examined for radiolabeled carnitine and metabolites. Urine and feces of rats receiving oral L-[methyl-14C]carnitine consistently contained two radiolabeled metabolites which were identified as trimethylamine N-oxide (primarily in urine) and gamma-butyrobetaine (primarily in feces). In these rats, these metabolites accounted for up to 23% and 31% of the administered dose, respectively. By contrast, for rats receiving intravenous L-[methyl-14C]carnitine or germ-free rats receiving the isotope orally or intravenously, virtually all of the radioactivity recovered was in the form of carnitine. Analyses for 14CO2 and [14C]trimethylamine in expired air revealed little or no (less than 0.1% of dose) conversion to these compounds, regardless of size of dose or route of administration. Results of this study demonstrate conclusively that L-carnitine is degraded in the gastrointestinal tract of the rat and that indigenous flora are responsible for these transformations.     

N6-Trimethyl-lysine metabolism. 3-Hydroxy-N6-trimethyl-lysine and carnitine biosynthesis.

Rats injected with N6-[Me-3H]trimethyl-lysine excrete in the urine five radioactively labelled metabolites. Two of these identified metabolites are carnitine and 4-trimethylammoniobutyrate. A third metabolite, identified as 5-trimethylammoniopentanoate, is not an intermediate in the biosynthesis of carnitine; the fourth and major metabolite, N2-acetyl-N6-trimethyl-lysine, is not a precursor of carnitine. The remaining metabolite (3-hydroxy-N6-trimethyl-lysine) is converted into trimethylammoniobutyrate and carnitine by rat liver slices and into trimethylammoniobutyrate by rat kidney slices. In rat liver and kidney-slice experiments, radioactivity from DL-N6-trimethyl-[1-14C]lysine and DL-N6-trimethyl-[2-14C]lysine was incorporated into N2-acetyl-N6-trimethyl-lysine and 3-hydroxy-N6-trimethyl-lysine, but not into trimethylammoniobutyrate or carnitine. A procedure was devised to purify milligram quantities of 3-hydroxy-N6-trimethyl-lysine from the urine of rats injected chronically with N6-trimethyl-lysine (100 mg/kg body wt. per day). The structure of 3-hydroxy-N6-trimethyl-lysine was confirmed chemically and by nuclear-magnetic-resonance spectrometry [Novak, Swift & Hoppel (1980) Biochem. J. 188, 521--527]. The sequence for carnitine biosynthesis in liver is: N6-trimethyl-lysine leads to 3-hydryxy-N6-trimethyl-lysine leads to leads to 4-trimethylammoniobutyrate leads to carnitine.     

Kinetic compartmental analysis of carnitine metabolism in the dog

This study was undertaken to quantitate the dynamic parameters of carnitine metabolism in the dog. Six mongrel dogs were given intravenous injections of L-[methyl-3H]carnitine and the specific radioactivity of carnitine was followed in plasma and urine for 19-28 days. The data were analyzed by kinetic compartmental analysis. A three-compartment, open-system model [(a) extracellular fluid, (b) cardiac and skeletal muscle, (c) other tissues, particularly liver and kidney] was adopted and kinetic parameters (carnitine flux, pool sizes, kinetic constants) were derived. In four of six dogs the size of the muscle carnitine pool obtained by kinetic compartmental analysis agreed (+/- 5%) with estimates based on measurement of carnitine concentrations in different muscles. In three of six dogs carnitine excretion rates derived from kinetic compartmental analysis agreed (+/- 9%) with experimentally measured values, but in three dogs the rates by kinetic compartmental analysis were significantly higher than the corresponding rates measured directly. Appropriate chromatographic analyses revealed no radioactive metabolites in muscle or urine of any of the dogs. Turnover times for carnitine were (mean +/- SEM): 0.44 +/- 0.05 h for extracellular fluid, 232 +/- 22 h for muscle, and 7.9 +/- 1.1 h for other tissues. The estimated flux of carnitine in muscle was 210 pmol/min/g of tissue. Whole-body turnover time for carnitine was 62.9 +/- 5.6 days (mean +/- SEM). Estimated carnitine biosynthesis ranged from 2.9 to 28 mumol/kg body wt/day. Results of this study indicate that kinetic compartmental analysis may be applicable to study of human carnitine metabolism.     

Biosynthesis of carnitine in Neurospora crassa.

In growing cultures of Neurospora crassa lysine auxotroph 33933, (a) beta-hydroxy-epsilon-N-trimethyllysine and gamma-N-trimethylaminobutyraldehyde, postulated precursors of carnitine in the rat, effectively blocked synthesis of labeles carnitine from epsilon-N-[CH3-3H]trimethyllysine; and (b) beta-hydroxy-epsilon-N[CH3-3H[trimethyllysine and gamma-N-[CH3-3H]trimethylaminobutyraldehyde were effectively utilized for carnitine formation. From these isotopic experiments, the latter steps of carnitine synthesis in Neurospora are postulated to be epsilon-N-trimethyllysine leads to beta-hydroxy-epsilon-N-trimethyllysine leads to gamma-N-trimethylaminobutyraldehyde leads to gamma-butyrobetaine leads to carnitine.     

gamma-butyrobetaine in tissues and serum of fed and starved rats determined by an enzymic radioisotopic procedure.

A method for the determination of picomole quantities of gamma-butyrobetaine and its application for the determination of gamma-butyrobetaine distribution in tissues are described. The method is based on the quantitative conversion of gamma-butyrobetaine into carnitine by using a 50-60%-satd.-(NH4)2SO4 fraction of rat liver supernatant as the source of gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase [4-trimethylaminobutyrate,2-oxoglutarate:oxygen oxidoreductase (3-hydroxylating), EC 1.14.11.1]; the carnitine formed is then measured enzymically. The mean gamma-butyrobetaine content, as nmol/g wet wt. of tissue, ranged from a low of 4.6 in livers to a high of 12.3 in hearts of normal fed male adult rats. Starvation for 48 h did not affect the gamma-butyrobetaine concentration in serum, liver and brain, but that in skeletal muscles, kidney and heart was increased. These data are in line with the present views that most tissues are able to produce gamma-butyrobetaine, and show that starvation enhances the synthesis and/or the retention of this compound in many tissues. The observed high affinity of gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase for gamma-butyrobetaine (Km 7 microM), the high activity of this enzyme and the low concentration of gamma-butyrobetaine in liver indicate that gamma-butyrobetaine availability is one of the factors that normally limit carnitine synthesis.     

Distribution and breakdown of labeled coenzyme Q10 in rat

Radioactive coenzyme Q(10) ([(3)H]CoQ) was synthesized in a way that the metabolites produced retained the radioactivity. Administration of the lipid to rats intraperitoneally resulted in an efficient uptake into the circulation, with high concentrations found in spleen, liver, and white blood cells; lower concentrations in adrenals, ovaries, thymus, and heart; and practically no uptake in kidney, muscle, and brain. In liver homogenate most [(3)H]CoQ appeared in the organelles, but it was also present in the cytosol and transport vesicles. Mitochondria, purified on a metrizamide gradient, had a very low concentration of [(3)H]CoQ, which was mainly present in the lysosomes. All organs that took up the labeled lipid also contained water-soluble metabolites. The majority of metabolites excreted through the kidney and appeared in the urine. Some metabolites were also present in the feces, which further contained nonmetabolized [(3)H]CoQ, excreted through the bile. The major metabolites were purified from the urine, and the mass spectrometric fragmentation showed that these compounds, containing the ring with a short side chain, are phosphorylated. Thus, the results demonstrate that CoQ is metabolized in all tissues, the metabolites are phosphorylated in the cells, transported in the blood to the kidney, and excreted into the urine.     

Metabolism of [14C]methamphetamine in man, the guinea pig and the rat

1. The metabolites of (+/-)-2-methylamino-1-phenyl[1-(14)C]propane ([(14)C]methamphetamine) in urine were examined in man, rat and guinea pig. 2. In two male human subjects receiving the drug orally (20mg per person) about 90% of the (14)C was excreted in the urine in 4 days. The urine of the first day was examined for metabolites, and the main metabolites were the unchanged drug (22% of the dose) and 4-hydroxymethamphetamine (15%). Minor metabolites were hippuric acid, norephedrine, 4-hydroxyamphetamine, 4-hydroxynorephedrine and an acid-labile precursor of benzyl methyl ketone. 3. In the rat some 82% of the dose of (14)C (45mg/kg) was excreted in the urine and 2-3% in the faeces in 3-4 days. In 2 days the main metabolites in the urine were 4-hydroxymethamphetamine (31% of dose), 4-hydroxynorephedrine (16%) and unchanged drug (11%). Minor metabolites were amphetamine, 4-hydroxyamphetamine and benzoic acid. 4. The guinea pig was injected intraperitoneally with the drug at two doses, 10 and 45mg/kg. In both cases nearly 90% of the (14)C was excreted, mainly in the urine after the lower dose, but in the urine (69%) and faeces (18%) after the higher dose. The main metabolites in the guinea pig were benzoic acid and its conjugates. Minor metabolites were unchanged drug, amphetamine, norephedrine, an acid-labile precursor of benzyl methyl ketone and an unknown weakly acidic metabolite. The output of norephedrine was dose-dependent, being about 19% on the higher dose and about 1% on the lower dose. 5. Marked species differences in the metabolism of methamphetamine were observed. The main reaction in the rat was aromatic hydroxylation, in the guinea pig demethylation and deamination, whereas in man much of the drug, possibly one-half, was excreted unchanged.     

The role of the kidney in the biosynthesis of carnitine in the rat.

Intravenous administration of L-[methyl-3H]-labeled trimethyllysine to rats results in a very rapid accumulation of radioactivity by the kidneys, while the incorporation of the label into the liver occurs at approximately 1% of this rate when calculated per g of wet tissue. The kidneys convert a substantial portion of the trimethyllysine taken up to butyrobetaine and to beta-hydroxytrimethyllysine, a precursor of butyrobetaine, but fail to synthesize carnitine. Significant amounts of radioactivity are recovered in both carnitine and butyrobetaine of hepatic tissue after longer time periods, while the level of labeled trimethyllysine in this organ remains very low. Bilateral nephrectomy results in a marked decrease in the incorporation of label into the liver. These results indicate that in rats, the initial conversion of trimethyllysine to butyrobetaine occurs predominantly in kidney and that the liver capacity for this transformation is considerably smaller than its capacity to synthesize carnitine from butyrobetaine.     

Metabolism of prostacyclin in rat.

Following a single intravenous administration of [11-3H]prostacyclin in rat, 77% of the administered dose was excreted within 3 days with 33% in urine and 44% in feces. Urinary metabolites were accumulated by chronic intravenous infusions of [11-3H]prostacyclin for 14 days. The drug was extensively metabolized and the structures of seven metabolites were elucidated by combined gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. The urinary products include the dinor and 19-hydroxy dinor derivatives of 6-keto-PGF1alpha and 13,14-dihydro-6,15-diketo-PGF1alpha, omega-hydroxy and omega-carboxyl dinor derivates of dihydro-6,15-diketo-PGF1alpha, and a dihydrodiketotetranordicarboxylic acid. The metabolic pathways of PGI2 in rat are similar to that of PGF2alpha.     

Catabolic pathways for high-dosed L(-)- or D(+)-carnitine in germ-free rats?

Gnotobiotic rats received up to 3 mmol L-carnitine/day with the drinking water during 9 days. They excreted about a quarter of the administered dose with the urine, partially in form of acetyl-L-carnitine, but trimethylamine, trimethylamine N-oxide or gamma-butyrobetaine were not detectable in urine or faeces in contrast to conventional animals. After oral loading with D-carnitine the unphysiological isomer was absorbed and either excreted unchanged in urine or metabolized to acetonyltrimethylammonium. With regard to the development of carnitine deficiency syndromes and the degradation of nutritional carnitine the conclusion has to be drawn, that the bacteria of the gastro-intestinal tract, but not the tissues of the mammals, are responsible for the metabolization of L-carnitine to gamma-butyrobetaine or trimethylamine.     

A deuterium surface coil NMR study of the metabolism of D-methionine in the liver of the anesthetized rat

The hepatic metabolism of deuteriated D-methionine has been studied in the intact, anesthetized rat using 2H NMR spectroscopy. The rate of formation of the principal labeled metabolite, [methyl-2H3]sarcosine, from the D-[methyl-2H3]methionine precursor was found to be as rapid as the rate observed previously in NMR studies of the hepatic metabolism of L-methionine. Similarly, rates of clearance of labeled methionine from the liver, formation of N-trimethyl-labeled metabolites, and labeling of the HDO pool were all found to be similar to the rates observed in the L-methionine studies. In contrast, all of these metabolic transformations are strongly inhibited by pretreatment of the rats with sodium benzoate, an inhibitor of D-amino acid oxidase. In vivo 2H NMR studies of sodium benzoate treated rats given L-[methyl-2H3]-methionine exhibit a much more rapid formation of [methyl-2H3]sarcosine than rats given the D enantiomer, consistent with the expectation that the sodium benzoate does not interfere with either the formation of S-adenosylmethionine or the subsequent transmethylation of glycine. However, the rates of methionine clearance and formation of deuteriated water are markedly reduced in this study relative to rats receiving the labeled D- or L-methionine without sodium benzoate pretreatment. These results indicate that subsequent to the initial oxidative deamination of the labeled D-methionine, the reamination to give L-methionine is rapid compared with the further degradation of the alpha-keto acid. Thus, the results are consistent with a dominant contribution of the glycine/sarcosine shuttle to the metabolism of excess D- or L-methionine.     

The site of incorporation of sialic acid residues into glycoproteins and the subsequent fates of these molecules in various rat and mouse cell types as shown by radioautography after injection of [3H]N- acetylmannosamine. II. Observations in tissues other than liver

Biochemical evidence from the preceding paper indicated that [3H]N- acetylmannosamine may be used as a fairly specific precursor for the sialic acid residues of glycoproteins (and perhaps glycolipids) in radioautographs of rat liver and duodenum. In order to study the site of incorporation of this label in cell types of various tissues, we gave 40-g rats and 15-g Swiss albino mice a single intravenous injection of 8 mCi of [3H]N-acetylmannosamine and sacrificed them after 2 and 10 min. To trace the subsequent migration of the labeled glycoproteins, we injected 40-g rats with 4 mCi of [3H]N- acetylmannosamine and sacrificed them after 20 and 30 min, 1, 4, and 24 h, and 3 and 9 d. Light microscope radioautographic analysis revealed that in a great variety of cell types the label was initially localized to the Golgi region. Electron microscope radioautographic analysis of duodenal villous columnar and goblet cells, pancreatic acinar cells and Paneth cells, from rats and mice sacrificed 10 min after injection, showed that the silver grains were localized over Golgi saccules (and adjacent secretion granules). In kidney proximal and distal tubule cells reaction was initially localized to the Golgi apparatus in some areas of the kidney cortex whereas in other areas it was more diffuse. In all cells, the proportion of silver grains over the Golgi apparatus decreased with time after injection while an increasing number of grains appeared over secretion products in secretory cells or over the plasma membrane in other cell types. Lysosomes also became increasingly labeled at later time intervals. The above results suggest that in most cell types sialic acid residues are incorporated into glycoproteins (and perhaps glycolipids), primarily in the Golgi apparatus. With time, these newly synthesized molecules migrate to secretion products, to the plasma membrane, or to the lysosomes.     

Metabolism of cysteinyl leukotrienes in monkey and man

The proinflammatory cysteinyl leukotrienes are inactivated in primates by (a) intravascular degradation, (b) hepatic and renal uptake from the blood circulation, (c) intracellular metabolism of leukotriene E4 (LTE4), and (d) biliary and renal excretion of LTC4 degradation products. We have analyzed cysteinyl leukotriene metabolites excreted into bile and urine of the monkey Macaca fascicularis and of man. In both species, hepatobiliary leukotriene elimination predominated over renal excretion. In a representative healthy human subject at least 25% of the administered radioactivity were recovered from bile and 20% from urine within 24 h. In monkey and man intravenous administration of 14,15-3H2-labeled LTC4 resulted in the biliary and urinary excretion of labeled LTE4, omega-hydroxy-LTE4, omega-carboxy-LTE4, omega-carboxy-dinor-LTE4, and omega-carboxy-tetranor-dihydro-LTE4. Small amounts of N-acetyl-LTE4 were detected in human urine only. Oxidative metabolism of LTE4 proceeded more rapidly in the monkey resulting in the formation of higher relative amounts of omega-oxidized leukotrienes in this species as compared to man. [3H]H2O amounted to less than 2% of the administered dose in monkey and human bile and urine samples. Incubation of isolated human hepatocytes with [3H2]LTC4, [3H2]LTD4, and [3H2]LTE4 showed that only [3H2]LTE4 underwent intracellular oxidative metabolism resulting in the formation of omega- and beta-oxidation products. N-Acetylated LTE4 derivatives were not detected as products formed by human hepatocytes. By a combination of reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography and radioimmunoassay, endogenous LTE4 and N-acetyl-LTE4 were detected in human urine in concentrations of 220 +/- 40 and 24 +/- 3 pM, corresponding to 12 +/- 1 and 1.5 +/- 0.2 nmol/mol creatinine, respectively (mean +/- SEM; n = 10). Endogenous LTD4 and LTE4 were detected in human bile (n = 3) in concentrations between 0.2-0.9 nM. Our results demonstrate that LTD4 and LTE4 are major LTC4 metabolites in human bile and/or urine and may serve as index metabolites for the measurement of endogenously generated cysteinyl leukotrienes. Moreover, omega-oxidation and subsequent beta-oxidation from the omega-end contribute to the metabolic degradation of LTE4 not only in monkey but also in man.     

Carnitine biosynthesis in hepatic peroxisomes. Demonstration of gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase activity.

We have investigated whether hepatic peroxisomes are capable of synthesizing carnitine. When purified peroxisomes were incubated with gamma-butyrobetaine, a precursor of carnitine, formation of carnitine was observed. These results indicate that peroxisomes contain gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase, the enzyme which catalyzes the final step in the biosynthesis of carnitine. This enzyme was previously believed to be present only in the cytosol. gamma-Butyrobetaine hydroxylase activity in peroxisomes was not due to cytosolic contamination as evaluated by marker enzyme analysis. When proliferation of peroxisomes was induced by clofibrate treatment, gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase/mass liver increased by 7.6-fold and the specific activity by 2.5-fold. We conclude that hepatic peroxisomes synthesize carnitine and this synthesis becomes substantial under conditions of peroxisomal proliferation.     

Biosynthesis and degradation of gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase of rat kidney

gamma-Glutamyltranspeptidase (gamma GTP) of rat kidney is an intrinsic glycoprotein bound to the plasma membrane and composed of two nonidentical subunits and an amino-terminal portion of the heavy subunit anchors the enzyme to the membrane. The mechanisms of biosynthesis, post-translational processing and degradation of the enzyme were studied using mono-specific antibody raised to gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase purified from rat kidney. The following results were obtained. Double isotope labeling in vivo showed that gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase is synthesized as a precursor form with a single polypeptide chain of 78,000 daltons, and then processed post-translationally by limited proteolysis, resulting in two subunits of 50,000 and 23,000 daltons. Incorporation of [3H]leucine or [35S]methionine into the precursor form increased until 60 min after their intravenous injection, and a pulse-chase experiment showed that the half life of the precursor form was 53 min. [3H]Fucose and [3H]glucosamine could also be incorporated into the precursor form, showing that glycosylation of the enzyme occurs at the stage of the precursor form. Rat kidney labeled with [3H]fucose was subjected to subcellular fractionation. The Golgi fraction contained the glycosylated precursor form and a small amount of subunits, and the plasma membrane fraction contained mostly subunits with a significant amount of precursor, suggesting that post-translational processing of the precursor occurs on the plasma membrane. The apparent half lives of the native enzyme and the heavy and light subunits were all estimated as 4.3 +/- 0.5 days by labeling with [3H]leucine or [3H]fucose. gamma-Glutamyltranspeptidase has a different turnover rate from aminopeptidase M, which is located in the microvillus membrane close to gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase.     

Metabolism of excess methionine in the liver of intact rat: an in vivo 2H NMR study

L-Methionine is the most toxic amino acid if supplied in excess, and the metabolic basis for this toxicity has been extensively studied, with varying conclusions. It is demonstrated here that in vivo 2H NMR spectroscopy provides a useful approach to the study of the hepatic metabolism of methionine in the anesthetized rat. Resonances corresponding to administered L-[methyl-2H3]methionine, and to the transmethylation product sarcosine, are observed during the first 10-min period after an intravenous injection of the labeled methionine, and the time dependence has been followed for a period of 5 h. A third resonance, assigned to the N-trimethyl groups of carnitine, phosphorylcholine, and other metabolites, becomes observable several hours after administration of the deuteriated methionine. In addition, there is a small increase in the intensity of the HDO resonance over the period of the study, which is interpreted to reflect the ultimate oxidation of the labeled sarcosine methyl group via mitochondrial sarcosine dehydrogenase. Additional small 2H resonances assigned to N1-methylhistidine and creatine could be observed in perchloric acid extracts of the livers of rats treated with the deuteriated methionine. Inhibition of the flux through the transmethylation pathway is observed in the rat pretreated with the S-ethyl analogue of methionine, ethionine. These data provide strong support for the importance of glycine transmethylation in the catabolism of excess methionine.     

Effect of exogenous carnitine on carnitine homeostasis in the rat

The interaction of exogenous carnitine with whole body carnitine homeostasis was characterized in the rat. Carnitine was administered in pharmacologic doses (0-33.3 mumols/100 g body weight) by bolus, intravenous injection, and plasma, urine, liver, skeletal muscle and heart content of carnitine and acylcarnitines quantitated over a 48 h period. Pre-injection urinary carnitine excretion was circadian as excretion rates were increased 2-fold during the lights-off cycle as compared with the lights-on cycle. Following carnitine administration, there was an increase in urinary total carnitine excretion which accounted for approx. 60% of the administered carnitine at doses above 8.3 mumols/100 g body weight. Urinary acylcarnitine excretion was increased following carnitine administration in a dose-dependent fashion. During the 24 h following administration of 16.7 mumols [14C]carnitine/100 g body weight, urinary carnitine specific activity averaged only 72 +/- 4% of the injection solution specific activity. This dilution of the [14C]carnitine specific activity suggests that endogenous carnitine contributed to the increased net urinary carnitine excretion following carnitine administration. 5 min after administration of 16.7 mumol carnitine/100 g body weight approx. 80% of the injected carnitine was in the extracellular fluid compartment and 5% in the liver. Plasma, liver and soleus total carnitine contents were increased 6 h after administration of 16.7 mumols carnitine/100 g body weight. 6 h post-administration, 37% of the dose was recovered in the urine, 12% remained in the extracellular compartment, 9% was in the liver and 22% was distributed in the skeletal muscle. In liver and plasma, short chain acylcarnitine content was increased 5 min and 6 h post injection as compared with controls. Plasma, liver, skeletal muscle and heart carnitine contents were not different from control levels 48 h after carnitine administration. The results demonstrate that single, bolus administration of carnitine is effective in increasing urinary acylcarnitine elimination. While liver carnitine content is doubled for at least 6 h following carnitine administration, skeletal muscle and heart carnitine pools are only modestly perturbed following a single intravenous carnitine dose. The dilution of [14C]carnitine specific activity in the urine of treated animals suggests that tissue-blood carnitine or acylcarnitine exchange systems contribute to overall carnitine homeostasis following carnitine administration.     

Carnitine biosynthesis in Neurospora crassa: enzymatic conversion of lysine to epsilon-N-trimethyllysine.

The enzymatic conversion of L-lysine, epsilon-N-trimethyl-L-lysine the first series of reactions in the biosynthesis of carnitine in Neurospora crassa, proceeds via sequential methylation of free L-lysine, epsilon-N-methyl-L-lysine, and epsilon -N-dimethyl-L-lysine. The latter two compounds have been shown to be intermediates in the biosynthesis of carnitine by radioisotope dilution and incorporation experiments in growing cultures of N. crassa 33933 (lys-) and 38706 (met-). Methionine but not choline, has been recognized as an effective methyl donor in vivo. Inclusion of choline in the growth medium of strain 33933 does, however, enhance incorporation of the methyl groups of L-[methyl-3H]methionine into carnitine in an apparent "sparing" effect on methionine synthesis. Studies in cell-free extracts of the lysine auxotroph strain 33933 of N. crassa have established that lysine and epsilon-N-methyl and epsilon-N-dimethyllysine are enzymatically methylated, with S-adenosyl-L-methionine as the methyl group donor. The enzyme system appears to have no essential cofactors. Lysine does not induce synthesis of the enzyme system in the wild-type strain 262, whereas both carnitine and epsilon-N-trimethyllysine repress its synthesis in strain 33933.     

Metabolism of 1-methyladenosine

1-[methyl-8-14C] Adenosine was synthesized and its metabolic fate was determined in intact rat. It was found that approximately 57% of 1-[methyl-8-14C] adenosine administered iv was excreted unchanged in the urine and 33% of the excreted radioactivity in the urine was associated with the major metabolite 1-methyl-hypoxanthine and about 4.5% was associated with 1-methylinosine. Very little adenosine or N6-methyladenosine was formed. It is concluded that 1-methyladenosine is initially deaminated by adenosine deaminase to 1-methylinosine which is then cleaved by nucleoside phosphorylase to 1-methylhypoxanthine.     

Functional relevance of carnitine transporter OCTN2 to brain distribution of l-carnitine and acetyl-l-carnitine across the blood–brain barrier

Transport of L-[3H]carnitine and acetyl-L-[3H]carnitine at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) was examined by using in vivo and in vitro models. In vivo brain uptake of acetyl-L-[3H]carnitine, determined by a rat brain perfusion technique, was decreased in the presence of unlabeled acetyl-L-carnitine and in the absence of sodium ions. Similar transport properties for L-[3H]carnitine and/or acetyl-L-[3H]carnitine were observed in primary cultured brain capillary endothelial cells (BCECs) of rat, mouse, human, porcine and bovine, and immortalized rat BCECs, RBEC1. Uptakes of L-[3H]carnitine and acetyl-L-[3H]carnitine by RBEC1 were sodium ion-dependent, saturable with K(m) values of 33.1 +/- 11.4 microM and 31.3 +/- 11.6 microM, respectively, and inhibited by carnitine analogs. These transport properties are consistent with those of carnitine transport by OCTN2. OCTN2 was confirmed to be expressed in rat and human BCECs by an RT-PCR method. Furthermore, the uptake of acetyl-L-[3H]carnitine by the BCECs of juvenile visceral steatosis (jvs) mouse, in which OCTN2 is functionally defective owing to a genetical missense mutation of one amino acid residue, was reduced. The brain distributions of L-[3H]carnitine and acetyl-L-[3H]carnitine in jvs mice were slightly lower than those of wild-type mice at 4 h after intravenous administration. These results suggest that OCTN2 is involved in transport of L-carnitine and acetyl-L-carnitine from the circulating blood to the brain across the BBB.