PD-L1表达调控通路-治疗肿瘤潜在的新途径

癌细胞表面能表达多种免疫抑制蛋白,程序性死亡分子受体1配体(programmed death ligand-1,PD-L1)是关键蛋白之一,可与免疫细胞(如T细胞、B细胞、树突状细胞和自然杀伤性T细胞)表面的程序性死亡受体-1(programmed death ligand,PD-1)结合,激活PD-1的免疫抑制作用,通过RAS/Raf/MEK/ERK、磷脂酶C-γ(phospholipase C-γ,PLC-γ)、磷脂酰肌醇-3-激酶-蛋白激酶B(PI3K-AKT)等通路下调机体免疫细胞功能,协助癌细胞进行免疫逃逸。故近年来应用免疫检查点PD-1、PD-L1抑制剂成为治疗恶性肿瘤的新手段。研究表明,PD-L1的表达受多种信号通路、相关蛋白和转录因子的调控,故本文就PD-L1的表达调控进行综述,寻求PD-L1表达调控通路能否作为抗肿瘤治疗新的靶点。     

磷脂酶C-γ功能研究进展

磷脂酶C-γ(PLC-γ)被激活后,通过两种不同的活化机制催化水解PIP2,产生IP3和DAG。IP3和DAG分别介导钙离子从钙泵中释放以及激活蛋白激酶C,从而形成一个关键的跨膜转导信号组分。现已知道,PLC-γ在细胞周期、细胞转化、生长和发育、细胞凋亡以及调控细胞肌动蛋白骨架等生命活动过程中起着重要的调节作用。另外,PLC-γ与其他转导信号,如PKC、Ras、Ca^2 等存在cross-talk关系。     

酪氨酸蛋白激酶型受体亚族的研究概况

已知许多生长因子的效应通过高亲和性受体酪氨酸激酶(Receptor Tyrosine Kinase,RTK)所介导。RTK信号通路,与已确认的第二信使系统即cAMP系统、Ca~(2 )系统和肌醇磷脂信号系统相互作用,相互协调以进行生物体正常生理活动。10年来,先后证实有9类RTK亚族(图1),各亚族成员以其独特的结构特点区别于其他亚族。 尽管RTK亚族间存在差异,但就信号发放途径而言,在很大程度上表现出共同性。配体结合胞外区城后,激活胞浆的酪氨酸激酶,导致下游大量共同发信号分子活化。经常受到激活的这类蛋白质有:磷脂酶C-γ(PLC-γ)、     

酪蛋白激酶1α与部分肿瘤信号通路

酪蛋白激酶(casein kinase,CK)是一类保守的丝/苏氨酸蛋白激酶,可磷酸化机体多种重要蛋白。该激酶分为两大家族:Ⅰ型酪蛋白激酶(casein kinase1,CK1)和Ⅱ型酪蛋白激酶(casein kinase2,CK2)。CK1在脊椎动物体内已发现七种异构体,分别为CK1α、CK1β、CK1γ1、CK1γ2、CK1γ3、CK1δ和CK1ε,有的异构体还存在不同形式的剪接体。CK1在细胞分裂与凋亡、DNA修复、P53调控、周期性节律等多种机体生理活动中发挥重要作用。在哺乳动物中,CK1α参与多种细胞生理过程,包括膜转运、细胞周期、染色体分离、细胞凋亡与分化等。此外,CK1α还参与Wnt/β-Catenin、Hedgehog及NF-κB等信号通路,该激酶还与肿瘤的发生、发展密切相关。本文主要对CK1α在各信号通路和肿瘤发生、发展中的作用做简要综述。     

C-激酶在跨膜信息传递中的作用

C-激酶(PKC)在跨膜信息传递中具有重要作用,其作用过程与A-激酶、G-激酶、Ca²⁺·CaM蛋白激酶相互区别而又紧密联系。C-激酶系通过催化多种蛋白特别是胰岛素受体,生长因子受体、钙调蛋白等生理活性蛋白的Ser/Thr残基磷酸化,以调节细胞代谢,分化、生长、增殖乃至癌变。     

磷酸脂酶C-γ1在人早期胚胎组织细胞中表达的免疫细胞化学研究

采用免疫细胞化学方法探讨了磷酸脂酶 C-γ1(PL C-γ1)在人早期胚胎组织细胞中的表达 ,发现在胚胎龄为 5 2 -76天的多种细胞中均有表达 ,以软骨、软骨膜及肌组织反应最强。结果提示 ,PL C-γ1相关的细胞内信号传递途径对于人早期胚胎细胞的发育、增殖具有重要的生物学意义。     

IκB激酶的激活及其在NF-κB活化过程中的作用

在NF-κB二聚体活化过程中,IκB激酶（IKK）通过对抑制性蛋白κB(IκBs)的磷酸化而扮演关键的角色.IKK复合物在胞浆内有多种存在形式,其中,IKK-α、IKK-β两者氨基酸序列52%的同源性,空间构象相似,常为催化亚单位,而IKK-γ则为调节亚单位,它们以不同的方式活化IκBs.核因子κB诱导激酶（NIK）与丝裂原活化蛋白激酶激酶激酶-1（MEKK₁）均为IKK的上游激酶,NIK可引起IKK-α Ser176、IKK-β相应位点的磷酸化,而MEKK₁主要引起IKK-β的活化.通过级联反应,使IκBs磷酸化而与NF-κB解离,致使NF-κB被激活并易位入核,启动免疫及炎症相关的基因转录.     

磷脂酶C-γ2在鼠成纤维细胞株克隆形成中的作用

通过对敲除磷脂酶C-γ1基因的细胞株及其转染磷脂酶C-γ2基因后克隆形成能力的统计学分析揭示出磷脂酶C-γ2有显著的促克隆形成作用,磷脂酶C-γ1作用微小,但与磷脂酶C-γ2有协同作用,提示磷脂酶C-γ2与γ1在功能上有一定的交互性、冗余性,但不可相互取代.     

IκB激酶的结构及其三个亚基相关功能

IκB激酶(IKK)在核因子κB(NF-κB)的活化过程中起着重要的催化调节作用.在以往的研究中,主要关注IKKβ催化亚基在NF-κB活化过程中的催化作用,对于IKKα催化亚基和调节亚基IKKγ/NEMO的了解甚少,但近几年的研究发现这三个亚基在NF-κB的活化过程中发挥不同的作用.由于NF-κB与人体免疫、应激以及细胞凋亡等活动密切相关,因此研究启动NF-κB活化过程的关键酶是十分必要的,为临床治疗提供了一定的理论依据.本文简述IKKα、IKKβ和IKKγ/NEMO三个亚基的基本结构特征及其在NF-κB活化过程中的功能和一些其它的特殊调节作用.     

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor promotes proliferation and progesterone synthesis in bovine granulosa cells

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is involved in regulating the growth of ovarian follicles, maturation of the oocyte, and development of the early embryo through its receptor, tyrosine kinase receptor B (TrkB). However, it is still unclear as to how BDNF influences proliferation and steroidogenesis of bovine granulosa cells (GCs). In this paper, we confirmed that BDNF and TrkB were expressed in bovine GCs, and that proliferation and steroidogenesis by bovine GCs were reduced by knockdown of BDNF or inhibition of TrkB. With respect to GC proliferation, BDNF enhanced cellular viability and the percentage of cells in the S phase. BDNF also activated both protein kinase B (PKB, also known as AKT) and the extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2)-signaling pathway. Through the AKT-signaling pathway, BDNF increased the expression of proliferation-related genes, including cyclin A1 (CCNA1), cyclin E2 (CCNE2), cyclin D1 (CCND1), and cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1). However, through the ERK1/2 signaling pathway, BDNF only increased the expression of CCNA1 and CCNE2. Regarding steroidogenesis by bovine GCs, BDNF promoted progesterone (P ₄) synthesis, but had no effect on estradiol; it also activated the AKT-signaling pathway and increased the expression of steroidogenesis-related genes, including steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR) and hydroxy-δ-5-steroid dehydrogenase, 3β- and steroid δ-isomerase 1 (HSD3B1). In summary, our data are the first to show that BDNF promotes the proliferation of bovine GCs through TrkB–AKT and ERK1/2 signaling pathways and increases P₄ synthesis by bovine GCs through the TrkB–AKT signaling pathway.     

The TrkB receptor tyrosine kinase regulates cellular proliferation via signal transduction pathways involving SHC, PLCgamma, and CBL.

The TrkB protein tyrosine kinase is a high affinity receptor for brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin-4 (NT-4). TrkB autophosphorylation occurs on five cytoplasmic tyrosines: Y484, Y670, Y674, Y675, and Y785. Using site directed mutagenesis, we have assessed the importance of TrkB tyrosines 484 and 785 in affecting TrkB-mediated signaling events leading to NIH 3T3 cell mitogenesis and survival. Mutation of TrkB tyrosine 484, while having no affect on BDNF-inducible PLCgamma and Cbl tyrosine phosphorylation, is essential for the phosphorylation of Shc, the complete activation of extracellular regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and the induction of c-fos protein synthesis. In contrast, mutation of Y785 does not significantly affect BDNF-inducible Shc phosphorylation, ERK1/2 activation, or c-fos protein synthesis, but completely inhibits the tyrosine phosphorylation of PLCgamma and Cbl. These data indicate that both ERK-dependent and ERK-independent signaling pathways lead to BDNF-inducible mitogenesis and survival.     

Rapid Activation of the Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) Signaling Pathway by Electroconvulsive Shock in the Rat Prefrontal Cortex Is Not Associated with TrkB Neurotrophin Receptor Activation

1. Emerging evidence indicates that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and its receptor TrkB play important roles in the mechanism of action of electroconvulsive shock (ECS) treatment. ECS produces a significant increase in brain BDNF synthesis together with a variety of neuroplastic changes including neurogenesis and axonal sprouting in the rodent brain, which is believed to be associated to the antidepressant effect of ECS. ERK1/2 (extracellular signal-regulated kinase-1/2) and Akt (protein kinase B), both intracellular signaling molecules being linked to neurotrophin signaling and synthesis, are important pathways triggered by TrkB autophosphorylation. 2. We have previously observed that chemical antidepressants induce a rapid activation of TrkB signaling in the rodent prefrontal cortex (PFC), which is likely a consequence of the stimulatory effect of antidepressants on BDNF synthesis. However, it is not known whether ECS triggers TrkB autophosphorylation and if any ECS-induced effect on TrkB function may be associated with the activation of the ERK1/2 and Akt pathways. 3. The present study assayed the phosphorylation levels of TrkB, ERK1/2, and Akt in the PFC of sham and ECS-treated rats. While the TrkB autophosphorylation (pTrkB) levels were decreased 30 min after both acute and chronic ECS, no change in pTrkB levels were observed at any other time points measured. In contrast, acute but not chronic ECS, transiently induced a very rapid and robust hyperphosphorylation of ERK1/2. Akt phosphorylation levels remained unchanged following acute or chronic ECS. Hence, although ECS effectively stimulates the ERK1/2 pathway in the PFC, this effect does not appear to involve upstream activation of TrkB.     

The Trkb Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Regulates Cellular Proliferation Via Signal Transduction Pathways Involving Shc,Plcγ, and Cbl

Abstract

The TrkB protein tyrosine kinase is a high affinity receptor for brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin-4 (NT-4). TrkB autophosphorylation occurs on five cytoplasmic tyrosines: Y484, Y670, Y674, Y675, and Y785. Using site directed mutagenesis, we have assessed the importance of TrkB tyrosines 484 and 785 in affecting TrkB-mediated signaling events leading to NIH 3T3 cell mitogenesis and survival. Mutation of TrkB tyrosine 484, while having no affect on BDNF-inducible PLCγ and Cbl tyrosine phosphorylation, is essential for the phosphorylation of Shc, the complete activation of extracellular regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and the induction of c-fos protein synthesis. In contrast, mutation of Y785 does not significantly affect BDNF-inducible Shc phosphorylation, ERK1/2 activation, or c-fos protein synthesis, but completely inhibits the tyrosine phosphorylation of PLCγ and Cbl. These data indicate that both ERK-dependent and ERK-independent signaling pathways lead to BDNF-inducible mitogenesis and survival.     

Magnetic stimulation modulates structural synaptic plasticity and regulates BDNF–TrkB signal pathway in cultured hippocampal neurons

Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a neuropsychiatric tool that can be used to investigate the neurobiology of learning and cognitive function. Few studies have examined the effects of low frequency (?1 Hz) magnetic stimulation (MS) on structural synaptic plasticity of neurons in vitro, thus, the current study examined its effects on hippocampal neuron and synapse morphology, as well as synaptic protein markers and signaling pathways. Similarly, both intensities of low frequency magnetic stimulation (1 Hz) activated brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and tropomyosin-related kinase B (TrkB) pathways, including the pathways for mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and for phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt). Specifically, low intensity magnetic stimulation (LIMS, 1.14 Tesla, 1 Hz) promoted more extensive dendritic and axonal arborization, as well as increasing synapses density, thickening PSD (post synaptic density) and upregulation of synaptophysin (SYN), growth associated protein 43 (GAP43) and post synaptic density 95 (PSD95). Conversely, high intensity magnetic stimulation (HIMS, 1.55 Tesla, 1 Hz) appeared to be detrimental, reducing dendritic and axonal arborization and causing apparent structural damage, including thinning of PSD, less synapses and disordered synaptic structure, as well as upregulation of GAP43 and PSD95, possibly for their ability to mitigate dysfunction. In conclusion, we infers that low frequency magnetic stimulation participates in regulating structural synaptic plasticity of hippocampal neurons via the activation of BDNF–TrkB signaling pathways.     

Phosphoproteomic Analysis of Neurotrophin Receptor TrkB Signaling Pathways in Mouse Brain

SUMMARY 1. The signaling pathways activated by trkB neurotrophin receptor have been studied in detail in cultured neurons, but little is known about the pathways activated by trkB in intact brain. TrkB is a tyrosine kinase and protein phosphorylation is a key regulatory process in the neuronal signal transduction pathways.2. We have investigated trkB signaling in the transgenic mice overexpressing trkB in postnatal neurons (trkB.TK) using phosphoproteomics.3. We found that several proteins are overphosphorylated on tyrosine residues in the brain of trkB.TK mice and identified some of these proteins.4. We demonstrate that the well characterized signaling molecules mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and cyclic AMP responsive element binding protein (CREB) were phosphorylated at a higher level in the brain of trkB.TK mice when compared to the wild type littermates. Furthermore, we found that β-actin was tyrosine phosphorylated in the brain of the transgenic mice.5. Our results demonstrate that phosphoproteomics is a sensitive approach to investigate signaling pathways activated in mouse brain.     

Induction of a Distinct Morphology and Signal Transduction in TrkB/PC12 Cells by Nerve Growth Factor and Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor

Abstract: A clonal cell line stably expressing trkB (TrkB/PC12) was established from rat pheochromocytoma PC12 cells. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), as well as nerve growth factor (NGF), stimulates neurite outgrowth in TrkB/PC12 cells. However, the morphology of BDNF-differentiated cells was clearly different from NGF-differentiated cells. BDNF treatment brought about longer and thicker neurites and induced a flattened soma and an increase in somatic size. This is not explained enough by the quantitative difference in the strength between TrkA and TrkB stimulation, because the level of BDNF-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of TrkB was similar to that of TrkA stimulated with NGF in PC12/TrkB cells. There was no difference in major tyrosine phosphorylated proteins induced by NGF and BDNF. Signal proteins such as phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, phospholipase C-γ1, Shc, and mitogen-activated protein kinase seem to be involved in both TrkA- and TrkB-mediated signaling pathways. However, a tyrosine-phosphorylated 38-kDa protein (pp38) was detected in anti-pan-Trk immunoprecipitation only after NGF stimulation. Immunoprecipitation using three distinct anti-pan-Trk antibodies suggests that pp38 is not a fragment of TrkA. These data indicate that TrkA has a unique signal transduction pathway that is not stimulated through TrkB in TrkB/PC12 cells and suggest distinct functions among neurotrophin receptors.     

Impairment of TrkB-PSD-95 Signaling in Angelman Syndrome

Angelman syndrome (AS) is a neurodevelopment disorder characterized by severe cognitive impairment and a high rate of autism. AS is caused by disrupted neuronal expression of the maternally inherited Ube3A ubiquitin protein ligase, required for the proteasomal degradation of proteins implicated in synaptic plasticity, such as the activity-regulated cytoskeletal-associated protein (Arc/Arg3.1). Mice deficient in maternal Ube3A express elevated levels of Arc in response to synaptic activity, which coincides with severely impaired long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus and deficits in learning behaviors. In this study, we sought to test whether elevated levels of Arc interfere with brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) TrkB receptor signaling, which is known to be essential for both the induction and maintenance of LTP. We report that TrkB signaling in the AS mouse is defective, and show that reduction of Arc expression to control levels rescues the signaling deficits. Moreover, the association of the postsynaptic density protein PSD-95 with TrkB is critical for intact BDNF signaling, and elevated levels of Arc were found to impede PSD-95/TrkB association. In Ube3A deficient mice, the BDNF-induced recruitment of PSD-95, as well as PLCγ and Grb2-associated binder 1 (Gab1) with TrkB receptors was attenuated, resulting in reduced activation of PLCγ-α-calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) and PI3K-Akt, but leaving the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk) pathway intact. A bridged cyclic peptide (CN2097), shown by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies to uniquely bind the PDZ1 domain of PSD-95 with high affinity, decreased the interaction of Arc with PSD-95 to restore BDNF-induced TrkB/PSD-95 complex formation, signaling, and facilitate the induction of LTP in AS mice. We propose that the failure of TrkB receptor signaling at synapses in AS is directly linked to elevated levels of Arc associated with PSD-95 and PSD-95 PDZ-ligands may represent a promising approach to reverse cognitive dysfunction.     

Analysis of tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent protein-protein interactions in TrkB-mediated intracellular signaling using modified yeast two-hybrid system.

Activated receptor tyrosine kinases induce a large number of tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent protein-protein interactions through which they mediate their various ligand-exerted functions including regulation of proliferation, differentiation and survival. TrkB receptor tyrosine kinase activated by binding of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) also stimulates various protein interactions in a tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent manner in neuronal cells. To examine tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent interactions stimulated by active TrkB, we developed a modified yeast two-hybrid system, which we call the yeast two-and-a-half-hybrid system. In this system, yeast was engineered to express a tyrosine kinase domain of TrkB as an effector, in addition to two fusion proteins with GAL4 DNA-binding and GAL4 activation domains as bait and prey proteins, respectively. Using this system with Shp2 as the bait, we demonstrated that Shp2 interacts directly with BIT/SHPS-1 (also called SIRP) and Grb2 depending on tyrosine phosphorylation mediated by TrkB. Furthermore, we screened an adult human brain cDNA library with the yeast two-and-a-half-hybrid system in order to identify other Shp2-binding proteins in TrkB-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation signaling. We found that fibroblast growth factor receptor substrate 2beta (FRS2beta), also called SNT2, interacts with Shp2 dependently on TrkB-mediated tyrosine phosphorylation of FRS2beta/SNT2. Therefore, we show that the two-and-a-half-hybrid system is a powerful tool for studying tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent protein-protein interactions in intracellular signaling pathways stimulated by TrkB receptor tyrosine kinase.