Forest use and vertical stratification in fruit-feeding butterflies of Sulawesi,Indonesia: impacts for conservation

Protected forest areas of Sulawesi are gradually being replaced by intensively used agroforestry systems and farmland, especially in lowland and sub-montane regions. Studies on the impact of these man-induced changes on biodiversity are of urgent conservation concern. We compared the fruit-feeding butterfly assemblage of a natural hill forest to that of a disturbed hill forest, representing a mosaic of old secondary forest and recently abandoned or active subsistence farms. Overall, species richness seemed highest in the disturbed site, but both abundance and diversity of endemic butterflies were significantly higher in the natural forest. Although the butterfly assemblage showed a clear vertical structure in the natural forest, vertical stratification was no longer pronounced at the disturbed site. Comparative studies based on diversity estimates from ground samples should consider not only the scale at which sampling is carried out and influences from nearby habitat patches in the surrounding landscape mosaic, but also possible behavioural changes in stratified species after forest modification. This study shows that higher overall species richness does not imply higher species distinctiveness, and indicates that the contribution of land-use systems to global biodiversity should be evaluated with caution, even when relatively high species richness estimates are found.     

Tree diversity in primary forest and different land use systems in Central Sulawesi,Indonesia

We studied the tree communities in primary forest and three different land use systems (forest gardens, ca. 5-year-old secondary forests, cacao plantations) at 900–1200 m elevation in the environs of Lore Lindu National Park, Central Sulawesi. The primary forests had ca. 150 tree species 10 cm diameter at breast height (dbh) per hectare, which is unusually high for forests at this elevation in southeast Asia. Basal area in the primary forest was 140 m² ha^–1, one of the highest values ever recorded in tropical forests worldwide. Tree species richness declined gradually from primary forest to forest gardens, secondary forests, and cacao plantations. This decline was paralleled by shifts in tree family composition, with Lauraceae, Meliaceae, and Euphorbiaceae being predominant in primary forests, Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae and Myristicaeae dominating in the forest gardens and Euphorbiaceae, Urticaceae, and Ulmaceae in the secondary forests. Cacao plantations were composed almost exclusively of cacao trees and two species of legume shade trees. Forest gardens further differed from primary forests by a much lower density of understorey trees, while secondary forests had fewer species of commercial interest. Comparative studies of birds and butterflies demonstrated parallel declines of species richness, showing the importance of trees in structuring tropical forest habitats and in providing resources.     

Linking biodiversity to ecosystem function: implications for conservation ecology

We evaluate the empirical and theoretical support for the hypothesis that a large proportion of native species richness is required to maximize ecosystem stability and sustain function. This assessment is important for conservation strategies because sustenance of ecosystem functions has been used as an argument for the conservation of species. If ecosystem functions are sustained at relatively low species richness, then arguing for the conservation of ecosystem function, no matter how important in its own right, does not strongly argue for the conservation of species. Additionally, for this to be a strong conservation argument the link between species diversity and ecosystem functions of value to the human community must be clear. We review the empirical literature to quantify the support for two hypotheses: (1) species richness is positively correlated with ecosystem function, and (2) ecosystem functions do not saturate at low species richness relative to the observed or experimental diversity. Few empirical studies demonstrate improved function at high levels of species richness. Second, we analyze recent theoretical models in order to estimate the level of species richness required to maintain ecosystem function. Again we find that, within a single trophic level, most mathematical models predict saturation of ecosystem function at a low proportion of local species richness. We also analyze a theoretical model linking species number to ecosystem stability. This model predicts that species richness beyond the first few species does not typically increase ecosystem stability. One reason that high species richness may not contribute significantly to function or stability is that most communities are characterized by strong dominance such that a few species provide the vast majority of the community biomass. Rapid turnover of species may rescue the concept that diversity leads to maximum function and stability. The role of turnover in ecosystem function and stability has not been investigated. Despite the recent rush to embrace the linkage between biodiversity and ecosystem function, we find little support for the hypothesis that there is a strong dependence of ecosystem function on the full complement of diversity within sites. Given this observation, the conservation community should take a cautious view of endorsing this linkage as a model to promote conservation goals. Received: 2 September 1999 / Accepted: 26 October 1999     

Coastal-marine discontinuities and synergisms: implications for biodiversity conservation

Coastal-marine biodiversity conservation must focus increasingly at the level of the land- and seascape. Five cases illustrate discontinuities and synergisms and how system changes may take place. For Caribbean coral reefs, the result of overfishing and disease has been a shrinkage in the entire system, the effects of which may cascade through the coastal seascape. For Beringia, patterns of benthic diversity are best understood in a manner that matches the multiscale, integrated dynamics of weather, ice, marine mammal feeding, and community structure. In the case of US East Coast estuaries, oyster reefs may be keystone elements, with important effects on functional diversity. Large-scale coastal systems depend upon the connectivity of fresh and marine waters in the coastal zone, having implications for the apparent stochasticity of coastal fisheries. And, for a coastal barrier-lagoon site, a state change may be described in terms of a combination of succession, the attainment of a quasi-equilibrium state, and disturbance. A profound problem for conservation is that there is very little information about the relationship between species diversity and ecological function. Coastal-marine biodiversity conservation is best addressed at the level of the land- and seascape.     

Home range area in the tortoise Testudo hermanni in relation to habitat complexity: implications for conservation of biodiversity

The tortoise Testudo hermanni is endangered by habitat fragmentation and loss in western Europe, where its high public profile and specific conservation projects make this a flagship species. Studies of movement in the peak reproductive season (June) showed that home ranges were substantially larger in France than in Greece. This difference was due to the intensity of use of the home range, not to the distance moved which was remarkably similar in the two areas. There was no sexual difference in home range area. The home range was therefore not large in France because of movement to nesting sites, but rather for utilization of the greater habitat complexity there. The need for reserves to include different vegetation types makes conservation of T. hermanni in France more difficult. Conversely, the need for large reserves increases its value as an umbrella species for conservation of biodiversity.     

Biodiversity conservation,yield, and alternative products in coffee agroecosystems in Sumatra,Indonesia

Agroecology and conservation must overlap to protect biodiversity and farmer livelihoods. Coffee agroecosystems with complex shade canopies protect biodiversity. Yet, few have examined biodiversity in coffee agroecosystems in Asia relative to the Americas and many question whether coffee agroecosystems can play a similar role for conservation. We examined vegetation, ant and bird diversity, coffee yields and revenues, and harvest of alternative products in coffee farms and forests in SW Sumatra, Indonesia near Bukit Barisan Selatan National Park (BBS). BBS is among the last habitats for large mammals in Sumatra and >15,000 families illegally cultivate coffee inside of BBS. As a basis for informing management recommendations, we compared the conservation potential and economic outputs from farms inside and outside of BBS. Forests had higher canopy cover, canopy depth, tree height, epiphyte loads, and more emergent trees than coffee farms. Coffee farms inside BBS had more epiphytes and trees and fewer coffee plants than farms outside BBS. Tree, ant, and bird richness was significantly greater in forests than in coffee farms, and richness did not differ in coffee farms inside and outside of BBS. Species similarity of forest and coffee trees, ants, and birds was generally low (<50%). Surprisingly, farms inside the park were significantly older, but farm size, coffee yields, and revenues from coffee did not depend on farm location. Farmers outside BBS received higher prices for their coffee and also more often produced other crops in their coffee fields such that incentives could be created to draw illegal farmers out of the park. We also discuss these results with reference to similar work in Chiapas, Mexico to compare the relative contribution of coffee fields to conservation in the two continents, and discuss implications for working with farmers in Sumatra towards conservation plans incorporating sustainable coffee production.     

Woodland biodiversity, palaeo-human ecology and some implications for conservation management

This paper appraises the role of prehistoric human societies in modifying the natural woodland biodiversity of several regions throughout Scotland. It draws attention to the likelihood that, contrary to popular belief, biodiversity was enhanced by interactions between agricultural communities and woodlands. The possible purposefulness of such interactions is discussed. Mindful of the present concern to re-establish ‘native’ woodlands in many parts of northern Britain, we then review three approaches to the identification of native tree types in Scotland, and conclude that insufficient attention in reafforestation schemes is being paid to (a) the palaeoecological record as a record of native woodland or (b) the likely former high taxonomic diversity of woodlands. Both these failings will lead to the creation of new woodlands lacking in species diversity.     

Freshwater biodiversity: importance, threats, status and conservation challenges

Freshwater biodiversity is the over‐riding conservation priority during the International Decade for Action ‐‘Water for Life’ ‐ 2005 to 2015. Fresh water makes up only 0.01% of the World's water and approximately 0.8 % of the Earth's surface, yet this tiny fraction of global water supports at least 100 000 species out of approximately 1.8 million ‐ almost 6% of all described species. Inland waters and freshwater biodiversity constitute a valuable natural resource, in economic, cultural, aesthetic, scientific and educational terms. Their conservation and management are critical to the interests of all humans, nations and governments. Yet this precious heritage is in crisis. Fresh waters are experiencing declines in biodiversity far greater than those in the most affected terrestrial ecosystems, and if trends in human demands for water remain unaltered and species losses continue at current rates, the opportunity to conserve much of the remaining biodiversity in fresh water will vanish before the ‘Water for Life’ decade ends in 2015. Why is this so, and what is being done about it? This article explores the special features of freshwater habitats and the biodiversity they support that makes them especially vulnerable to human activities. We document threats to global freshwater biodiversity under five headings: overexploitation; water pollution; flow modification; destruction or degradation of habitat; and invasion by exotic species. Their combined and interacting influences have resulted in population declines and range reduction of freshwater biodiversity worldwide. Conservation of biodiversity is complicated by the landscape position of rivers and wetlands as ‘receivers’ of land‐use effluents, and the problems posed by endemism and thus non‐substitutability. In addition, in many parts of the world, fresh water is subject to severe competition among multiple human stakeholders. Protection of freshwater biodiversity is perhaps the ultimate conservation challenge because it is influenced by the upstream drainage network, the surrounding land, the riparian zone, and ‐ in the case of migrating aquatic fauna ‐ downstream reaches. Such prerequisites are hardly ever met. Immediate action is needed where opportunities exist to set aside intact lake and river ecosystems within large protected areas. For most of the global land surface, trade‐offs between conservation of freshwater biodiversity and human use of ecosystem goods and services are necessary. We advocate continuing attempts to check species loss but, in many situations, urge adoption of a compromise position of management for biodiversity conservation, ecosystem functioning and resilience, and human livelihoods in order to provide a viable long‐term basis for freshwater conservation. Recognition of this need will require adoption of a new paradigm for biodiversity protection and freshwater ecosystem management ‐ one that has been appropriately termed ‘reconciliation ecology’.     

Fossil insects and ecosystem dynamics in wetlands: implications for biodiversity and conservation

We review the uses of fossil insects, particularly Coleoptera (beetles) and Chironomidae (non-biting midges) from ancient deposits to inform the study of wetland ecosystems and their ecological and restoration processes. In particular, we focus on two contrasting ecosystems, drawing upon research undertaken by us on British raised mire peats and shallow lake systems, one an essentially terrestrial ecosystem, the other aquatic, but in which wetland insects play an important and integral part. The study of raised mire peats suggests that faunal stability is a characteristic of these wetland systems, over what appear to be extensive periods of time (up to several millennia), whilst studies of shallow lake ecosystems over recent timescales indicates that faunal instability appears to be more common, usually driven by increasing eutrophication. Drawing upon a series of fossil Coleoptera records spanning several thousand years from Hatfield Moors, south Yorkshire, we reconstruct in some detail the mire’s ontogeny and fluctuations in site hydrology and vegetation cover, illustrating the intimate association between substrate, topography and peat development. A comparison between fossil and modern beetle populations indicates that the faunal characteristics of this mire and its adjacent neighbour, Thorne Moors, become established during the early phases of peat development, including its rare endemics, and that the faunal biodiversity on the sites today is dictated by complex site histories. The over-riding characteristic of these faunas is of stability over several thousand years, which has important implications for the restoration of degraded sites, especially those where refugial areas are limited. In contrast, analyses of fossil Chironomidae from shallow lakes allow researchers to track changes in limnological status and while attempts have been made to reconstruct changes in nutrient levels quantitatively, the chironomids respond indirectly to such changes, typically mediated through complex ecosystem dynamics such as changes in fish and/or macrophyte communities. These changes are illustrated via historic chironomid stratigraphies and diversity indices from a range of shallow lakes located across Britain: Slapton Ley, Frensham Great Pond, Fleet Pond, Kyre Pool and Barnes Loch. These sites have shown varying degrees of eutrophication over recent timescales which tends to be associated with a decline in chironomid diversity. While complex functional processes exist within these ecosystems, our evidence suggests that one of the key drivers in the loss of shallow lake chironomid diversity appears to be the loss of aquatic macrophytes. Overall, while chironomids do show a clear response to altered nutrient regimes, multi-proxy reconstructions are recommended for a clear interpretation of past change. We conclude that if we are to have a better understanding of biota at the ecosystem level we need to know more of the complex interactions between different insect groups as well as with other animal and plant communities. A palaeoecological approach is thus crucial in order to assess the role of insect groups in ecosystem processes, both in the recent past and over long time scales, and is essential for wetland managers and conservation organisations involved in long term management and restoration of wetland systems     

Bird community variation across <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polylepis</Emphasis> woodland fragments and matrix habitats: implications for biodiversity conservation within a high Andean landscape

The scattered and dwindling Polylepis woodlands of the high Andean global hotspot have been identified as being of particular importance to biodiversity conservation, and yet little is known of the make-up of their faunal communities, how these vary across landscapes, and how well species might tolerate matrix/edge habitats. We examined the bird communities and vegetation characteristics of Polylepis woodlands and the surrounding matrix habitats at three sites in the Cordillera Vilcanota, southern Perú (3,400–4,500 m). The vegetation structure of woodlands varied significantly across the three sites but all were dominated by two Polylepis tree species, with mossy ground cover. Matrix habitats were treeless and dominated by ground-level puna grass-steppe or boulder scree vegetation. Bird species richness and diversity, encounter rates and the number of globally-threatened and restricted-range bird species were consistently higher in the Polylepis forests, than in matrix habitat. We used canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) to identify habitat gradients across the landscape, and to classify bird species according to their association with Polylepis, the matrix or Polylepis-matrix interface. There were few matrix-restricted bird species, but around half the bird community, including fourteen threatened or restricted-range species, were Polylepis-dependant. Many of these species had very narrow niches. The Polylepis-matrix interface was dominated by species traditionally considered invasive ecological generalists. Our study illustrates the overriding importance of Polylepis interior habitats, indicating that conservation strategies for high Andean birds must focus on patch size maintenance/enlargement, enhancement of within-patch habitat quality, and efforts to safeguard connectivity of suitable habitat across what is essentially an inhospitable puna/scree matrix.     

Is soil degradation unrelated to deforestation? Examining soil parameters of land use systems in upland Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

It is generally assumed that declining soil fertility during cultivation forces farmers to clear forest. We wanted to test this for a rainforest margin area in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia. We compared soil characteristics in different land-use systems and after different length of cultivation. 66 sites with four major land-use systems (maize, agroforestry, forest fallow and natural forest) were sampled. Soils were generally fertile, with high base cation saturation, high cation exchange capacity, moderate pH-values and moderate to high stocks of total nitrogen. Organic matter stocks were highest in natural forest, intermediate in forest fallow and lowest in maize and agroforestry sites. In maize fields soil organic matter decreased during continuous cultivation, whereas in agroforestry it was stable or had the tendency to increase in time. The effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) was highest in natural forest and lowest in maize fields. Base cations saturation of ECEC did not change significantly during cultivation both maize and agroforestry, whereas the contribution of K cations decreased in maize and showed no changes in agroforestry sites. Our results indicate that maize cultivation tends to reduce soil fertility but agroforestry systems are able to stop this decline of soil fertility or even improve it. As most areas in this rain forest margin are converted into agroforestry systems it is unlikely that soil degradation causes deforestation in this case. On the contrary, the relatively high soil fertility may actually attract new immigrants who contribute to deforestation and start agriculture as smallholders.     

Plants in traditional home gardens: richness,composition, conservation and implications for native biodiversity in Benin

Home gardens have received increasing attention and have been insistently presented as hotspots for agro-biodiversity over the last decades. However, apart from their exceptional high plant species diversity, there is little quantitative evidence of the effectiveness of plant species conservation in home gardens. This study examined this issue by assessing (i) the size and membership of garden flora and the contribution to the maintenance of the national flora, (ii) how home garden flora connects to the larger ecosystem it belongs to and (iii) the conservation status of plant species at the home garden level. 360 home gardens distributed in three agro-ecological zones and nine phyto-geographical districts in Benin were visited and inventoried. Diversity parameters at different taxonomic levels were calculated. Species accumulation and spatial occupancy, multivariate methods and rarity index were also used for data analysis. Findings showed that the 360 studied home gardens hosted up to 14.21% of plant species and 44.32% of plant families of the national flora. Home garden flora was constantly dominated by exotic plant species but strongly connected to their surrounding ecosystems, being composed of at least 60% of plant species from their phyto-geographical districts. Finally, home garden plant species were mostly rare and threatened at the home garden level. In this study, we acknowledge the contribution of home gardens to the maintenance of plant species diversity at regional and global levels than local level. Based on the observed prevalence of exotic species, HG effectiveness in sustainably conserving native plant species biodiversity remains questionable.     

Achieving landscape-scale deer management for biodiversity conservation: The need to consider sources and sinks

Hyper-herbivory following predator removal is a global issue. Across North America and Europe, increasing deer numbers are affecting biodiversity and human epidemiology, but effectiveness of deer management in heterogeneous landscapes remains poorly understood. In forest habitats in Europe, deer numbers are rarely assessed and management is mainly based on impacts. Even where managed areas achieve stable or improving impact levels, the extent to which they act as sinks or persist as sources exporting deer to the wider landscape remains unknown. We present a framework to quantify effectiveness of deer management at the landscape scale. Applied across 234 km² of Eastern England, we assessed management of invasive Reeve's muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi) and native roe (Capreolus capreolus), measuring deer density (using thermal imaging distance transects 780 km/year), fertility, neonatal survival, and culling to quantify source-sink dynamics over 2008–2010. Despite management that removed 23–40% of the annual population, 1,287 (95% CI: 289–2,680) muntjac and 585 (454–1,533) roe deer dispersed annually into the wider landscape, consistent with their ongoing range expansion. For roe deer, culled individuals comprised fewer young deer than predicted by a Leslie matrix model assuming a closed population, consistent with age-dependent emigration. In this landscape, for roe and muntjac, an annual cull of at least 60% and 53%, respectively, is required to offset annual production. Failure to quantify deer numbers and productivity has allowed high density populations to persist as regional sources contributing to range expansion, despite deliberative management programs, and without recognition by managers who considered numbers and impacts to be stable. Reversing an unfavorable condition of woodland biodiversity requires appropriate culls across large contiguous areas, supported by knowledge of deer numbers and fertility. © 2013 The Wildlife Society.     

Anatomy of an adaptive radiation: a unique reproductive strategy in the endemic freshwater gastropod Tylomelania (Cerithioidea: Pachychilidae) on Sulawesi, Indonesia and its biogeographical implications

The patterns of adaptive radiations in ancient lakes provide valuable clues to mechanisms of speciation and adaptation. In contrast to vertebrate radiations, for instance in fishes or finches, invertebrate species flocks have been largely neglected. While the increase in molecular data narrows this gap, the anatomical basis for interpreting these data against the background of evolutionary hypotheses is still widely lacking. Here we evaluate anatomical findings in the live‐bearing pachychilid freshwater gastropod Tylomelania, which has radiated extensively in ancient lakes in the Indonesian island, Sulawesi; we have aimed at reconciling these data with recently obtained molecular phylogenetic evidence. Discovered more than a century ago, the speciose and phenotypically diverse species flock with 34 currently described taxa was only occasionally cited as an example of adaptive radiation in ancient lakes, while anatomical data were entirely lacking. Our study of anatomical characters reveals very low qualitative variation at the species level. Thus, contrary to earlier views we suggest the existence of a single monophyletic lineage endemic to this island. The most conspicuous feature of Tylomelania is its uterine brooding strategy, i.e. retaining eggs and embryos in the pallial oviduct. This is unique among South‐East Asian pachychilids. Within the uterine brood pouch the offspring is surrounded by considerable amounts of nutritive material produced by a very large albumin gland, and the embryos are produced continuously. The shelled juveniles of some species are the largest known so far in viviparous gastropods, measuring almost 2 cm in length when hatching. This combination of reproductive features in Tylomelania, characterized by a high amount of maternal investment, is considered to be ovoviviparous, rendering its brooding strategy unique also among other gastropods. In addition, our data reject a previously assumed close relationship to other South‐East Asian pachychilids and instead suggest the North Australian Pseudopotamis as sister group to Tylomelania. These findings have significant consequences for the phylogenetic interpretation of morphological characters of Tylomelania in an evolutionary and biogeographical context, leading to the hypothesis that the common ancestor of both genera originated somewhere on the northern Australian continental margin. © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2005, 85 , 513–542.     

Linking soil biodiversity and vegetation: implications for a changing planet

Soil biota are intimately tied to plant communities through herbivory and symbiosis and indirectly by the decomposition of dead organic plant material. Through both roots and aboveground organic material (e.g., leaves and wood), plants provide substantial inputs of organic matter to soil systems. Plants are the basis for most biotic soil food webs that comprise an enormous diversity of species whose multiple interactions function to help regulate nutrient cycling, which in turn influences plant growth. Many factors govern the biogeography of soil biota, including the physical and chemical properties of soil, climate, the composition and type of vegetation, and interactions with other soil biota. Despite awareness of factors influencing soil communities, no single factor allows predictions of soil animal diversity or distribution. However, research is showing that plants can have unique soil biotic communities. Degradation of soil, which removes predators and biotic regulation that occurs in less managed ecosystems, can result in increased pathogens and pests that affect humans, other animals and plants. Global changes such as land use, desertification, and soil pollution all have been shown to alter soil animal diversity and abundance. Because of our dependence on soils and plant production, studies linking soil biotic communities to primary productivity are needed to assure long-term soil sustainability.     

Impact of four silvicultural systems on birds in the Belgian Ardenne: implications for biodiversity in plantation forests

Uneven-aged management of conifer plantations is proposed as a way to increase the value of these forests for the conservation of bird diversity. To test this assumption, we compared the impact of four common silvicultural systems on bird communities, defined by cutblock size (large in even-aged silvicultural systems/smaller in uneven-aged silvicultural systems) and tree species composition (spruce/beech) in the Belgian Ardenne where beech forests have been replaced by spruce plantations. The abundances of bird species were surveyed in young, medium-aged and mature stands in 3–5 forests per silvicultural system (66 plots in all). The effect of silvicultural systems on bird species richness, abundance and composition were analysed both at the plot and at the silvicultural system levels. In plots of a given age, beech stands were richer in species. The composition of bird species at the plot level was explained by stand age and tree composition, but weakly so by stand evenness. For the silvicultural systems, bird species richness was significantly higher in even-aged and in beech forests, and bird species composition depended on the silvicultural system. This study emphasises the importance of maintaining native beech stands for birds and suggests that uneven-aged management of conifer plantations does not provide a valuable improvement of bird diversity comparatively with even-aged systems.     

生物多样性保护优先区对重庆苔藓植物多样性保护的重要性

生物多样性保护优先区的生物多样性十分丰富, 对于生物多样性保护具有重要意义。本文基于野外调查数据和文献资料, 整合大巴山和武陵山两个中国生物多样性保护优先区重庆境内的苔藓植物名录, 通过分析物种丰富度、中国特有种和受威胁物种, 比较了这两个地区的苔藓植物组成特点和相似性。结果显示, 两个保护优先区重庆境内共有苔藓植物77科221属722种, 其物种数分别占重庆市和中国苔藓植物总种数的76.0%和23.9%。两个区域分布有中国特有苔藓植物56种, 占中国苔藓植物总种数的1.9%; 分布有极危苔藓植物1种、濒危4种和易危3种。科、属、种的Jaccard相似性系数分别为0.7、0.6和0.3, 表明两个区域物种组成差异较大。大巴山和武陵山两个中国生物多样性保护优先区都具有较高的苔藓植物物种多样性, 其种类组成具有一定代表性, 对重庆市和中国苔藓植物多样性保护具有重要价值。     

Contribution by farmers' survival strategies to soil erosion in the Linthipe River Catchment: implications for biodiversity conservation in Lake Malawi/Nyasa

Sediment discharge into Lake Malawi is threatening its ecologicalimportance, thereby inflicting serious socio-economic consequences upon peopledependent on this ecosystem. The discharge is attributed to high rates oferosion in the Lake's catchment, principally occurring on agriculturalland. This study examines how survival strategies, such as expansion ofcultivated farmland and use of low fertilizer application rates, enhance thelikelihood of erosion in the Linthipe River Catchment – one of theLake's important river catchments. As such, it shows that the magnitude oferosion is significantly correlated to the amount of farmland cultivated byestate farmers and smallholders (r = 0.18,P = 0.03, and r = 0.19,P = 0.003 respectively). The low correlation coefficientsuphold the long-established fact that physical variables such as soilerodibility (vulnerability of soil to erosion), rainfall erosivity (thepotential of rainfall to cause erosion), and topography, also play major rolesin erosion processes. Nonetheless they do show that area of cultivated landcontributes to erosion. Additionally, the study shows that yields of importantcrops such as maize and tobacco are low because of insufficient use offertilizers. To compensate for the low yields, farmers rely on extending sizesof land that they cultivate thereby exposing more land to erosive forces ofrainfall. The study, therefore, concludes that Lake Malawi's biodiversityis under threat. In order to sustain the biodiversity, it is necessary toeliminate the need to increase farmland by means of agricultural intensificationthat incorporates appropriate soil-conservation measures.     

Methodological considerations for detection of terrestrial small‐body salamander eDNA and implications for biodiversity conservation

Environmental DNA (eDNA) can be used as an assessment tool to detect populations of threatened species and provide fine‐scale data required to make management decisions. The objectives of this project were to use quantitative PCR (qPCR) to: (i) detect spiked salamander DNA in soil, (ii) quantify eDNA degradation over time, (iii) determine detectability of salamander eDNA in a terrestrial environment using soil, faeces, and skin swabs, (iv) detect salamander eDNA in a mesocosm experiment. Salamander eDNA was positively detected in 100% of skin swabs and 66% of faecal samples and concentrations did not differ between the two sources. However, eDNA was not detected in soil samples collected from directly underneath wild‐caught living salamanders. Salamander genomic DNA (gDNA) was detected in all qPCR reactions when spiked into soil at 10.0, 5.0, and 1.0 ng/g soil and spike concentration had a significant effect on detected concentrations. Only 33% of samples showed recoverable eDNA when spiked with 0.25 ng/g soil, which was the low end of eDNA detection. To determine the rate of eDNA degradation, gDNA (1 ng/g soil) was spiked into soil and quantified over seven days. Salamander eDNA concentrations decreased across days, but eDNA was still amplifiable at day 7. Salamander eDNA was detected in two of 182 mesocosm soil samples over 12 weeks (n = 52 control samples; n = 65 presence samples; n = 65 eviction samples). The discrepancy in detection success between experiments indicates the potential challenges for this method to be used as a monitoring technique for small‐bodied wild terrestrial salamander populations.     

From fence-and-fine to participatory conservation: mechanisms of transformation in conservation governance at the Gunung Halimun-Salak National Park,Indonesia

This paper addresses the transformation of forest bureaucracy, which has occurred in accordance with a national policy shift from “fence-and-fine” to “participatory” conservation, and its impact on resource users at Gunung Halimun-Salak National Park in Indonesia and analyzes causal relationships between this transformation and its outcome. The research suggests that the mode of conservation governance was transformed through the implementation of new ways of communication and interaction, learning processes and perceptional and behavioral changes. The result of this analysis indicates that while the dominant discourse of participatory conservation assumes a primary importance of satisfying local economic needs for conservation, what should be emphasized is the process of trust-building and learning between frontline staff and local resource users without which the durability of a conservation institution is questionable. The analysis also reveals both challenges and limitations of a trust-building approach: while the approach effectively functions to halt forest degradation, it might not lead to the rehabilitation of forest ecosystem.