Temperature and diet effects on immature development of predatory mite Typhlodromus athenas Swirski and Ragusa (Acari: Phyotseiidae)

Temperature and food quality both can influence growth rates and developmental time of herbivorous insects and mites. Typhlodromus athenas Swirski and Ragusa is an indigenous mite in the Mediterranean region and data on its temperature dependent development are lacking. In the current study, temperature-dependent development and survival of T. athenas immature stages were evaluated on eggs and all stages of Tetranychus urticae Koch, as well as on almond (Prunus amygdalis Batsch) pollen, under seven constant temperatures ranging from 15 to 35°C, 65% RH, and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D) h. On both diets survival was considerably high at all temperatures. The longest developmental period of immature stages was recorded at 15°C, whereas the shortest was at 30°C. Female immatures on almond pollen had shorter developmental time compared to that on twospotted spider mites. Food had a significant effect on female total developmental time at temperatures lower than 25°C. The lower developmental thresholds, estimated by a linear model, for egg-to-adult of females and males fed on pollen were 8.60 and 8.77°C, respectively, whereas on T. urticae they were 10.15 and 10.62°C, respectively. Higher values of tmin for total development were estimated by a nonlinear model (Lactin-2), and ranged from 10.21°C for both females and males on almond, to 11.07 for females and 10.78°C for males on prey. Moreover, this model estimated optimal and lethal temperatures accurately. The results of this study indicate that T. athenas appears better adapted to higher temperatures that occur in the Mediterranean region and may be a useful biological control agent.     

Effect of temperature on the demography of Galerucella birmanica (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Studies on the effect of temperature on the development of the water chestnut beetle, Galerucella birmanica Jacoby were carried out in the laboratory at seven different temperatures: 16 °C, 19 °C, 22 °C, 25 °C, 28 °C, 31 °C and 34 °C. The developmental time decreased with increase in temperature. The developmental time at 16 °C, 19 °C, 22 °C, 25 °C, 28 °C, 31 °C and 34 °C was 96.60, 80.68, 58.96, 43.48, 35.03, 30.08 and 28.02 days for the period from egg hatching to adult emergence, respectively. The developmental threshold estimated for a generation by linear regression was 10.36 °C. The fecundity per female at 22 °C, 25 °C, 28 °C, 31 °C and 34 °C was 102.3, 134.5, 141.2, 130.1 and 116.2 eggs, respectively. Oviposition period ranged from 15.6 days at 22 °C to 8.6 days at 34 °C. Hatchability of eggs was highest at 31 °C with 76.9% and lowest at 34 °C with 57.1%. The highest generation survival rate was 65.3% at 31 °C, and the intrinsic rate of natural increase ( r _m) for G. birmanica was the highest at 34 °C.     

Temperature-related development and population parameters for Typhlodromus pyri (Acari: Phytoseiidae) found in Oregon vineyards

The beneficial mite Typhlodromus pyri is a key predator of grapevine rust mite Calepitrimerus vitis in Pacific coastal vineyards. Rust mite feeding has been associated with damage such as stunted, deformed shoot growth and reductions in fruit yield. The life history traits of T. pyri were assessed at seven constant temperatures (12.5, 15, 17.5, 20, 25, 30 and 35 °C) to determine population parameters providing data to better predict biological control of C. vitis populations by T. pyri in vineyards. Successful development from the egg to adult stage was observed at temperatures ranging from 15 to 30 °C. Constant exposure to 12.5 and 35 °C resulted in 100 % mortality in immature T. pyri. Developmental times, fecundity and longevity were highest at 25 °C. The estimated minimum and maximum developmental thresholds were 7.24 and 42.56 °C, respectively. Intrinsic rate of increase (r ( m )) was positive from 15 to 30 °C indicating population growth within this range of temperatures. Net reproductive rate and intrinsic rate of increase were greatest at 25 °C. These developmental parameters can be used to estimate population growth, determine seasonal phenology and aid in conservation management of T. pyri. Results presented in this study will aid in evaluating the effectiveness of T. pyri as a key biological control agent of C. vitis during different periods of the growing season in Pacific Northwest vineyards.     

Effects of temperature on development of vedalia beetle, Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant)

The effect of temperature on the development of the vedalia beetle, Rodolia cardinalis (Mulsant) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), fed Icerya purchasi Maskell (Homoptera: Margarodidae) under controlled laboratory conditions was studied. Adults exposed to temperatures of 25, 28, 31, 34, and 37 °C for 72 h showed 95–100% survival, however egg production was significantly reduced at 34 and 37 °C. In addition, eggs maintained at 34 °C showed reduced hatch and survival of larvae, and eggs held at 37 °C failed to hatch. The duration of each developmental stage and survival of each stage were measured at 10, 14, 18, 22, and 25 °C. There was no egg eclosion at 10 °C. The developmental time from egg to adult emergence decreased from 79 to 18 days for temperatures from 14 to 25 °C. The sex ratio was unaffected by these temperatures. The lower developmental temperature threshold of R. cardinalis was estimated to be 10.8 °C and the degree–day accumulation was calculated as 279 for development from egg to adult eclosion. These results will guide further research designed to optimize management of vedalia populations in the San Joaquin Valley of California.     

Temperature-dependent development and life table parameters of Octodonta nipae (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

The effect of temperature on the development, survivorship, fecundity, and life table parameters of Octodonta nipae (Maulik) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), was studied at seven constant temperatures of 17.5, 20, 22.5, 25, 27.5, 30, and 32.5°C. Preliminary experiments showed that no development was observed at 15 and 35°C. All individuals completed development and females laid eggs from 20 to 30°C. There was a significant decrease in male and female longevity with increasing temperatures from 20 to 30°C. The longest and shortest longevity were 203.5 and 73.7 d for males, and 178.7 and 57.6 d for females, respectively. Females produced on average 62.7, 88.9, 116.8, 70.0, and 47.3 eggs and the life expectancy for a newborn egg was 171.6, 148.7, 114.9, 89.2, and 94.8 d at 20, 22.5, 25, 27.5 and 30°C, respectively. Life history data were analyzed by using an age-stage, two-sex life table. The intrinsic rate of increase (r) and the finite rate of increase (λ) of O. nipae increased with increasing temperatures from 20 to 30°C, while the mean generation time (T) decreased within this temperature range. The r was 0.0155, 0.0249, 0.0339, 0.0361, and 0.0383 d(-1) at 20, 22.5, 25, 27.5, and 30°C, respectively. The net reproductive rate (r(0)) was highest at 25°C (35.0 offspring), and lowest at 20°C (17.0 offspring). T was shortest at 30°C (76.4 d). The results showed that temperature greatly affected the fecundity and life table parameters of O. nipae, and a suitable temperature for population development and fecundity was at 25°C. The life table data can be used for the projection of population growth and evaluation of control programs.     

Effects of temperature on the adults and progeny of the predaceous mite Lasioseius japonicus (Acari: Blattisociidae) fed on the cereal mite Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Acari: Acaridae)

The predatory mite Lasioseius japonicus Ehara is a newly recorded species in China that has been shown to have great potential as a biological control agent. The species is a soil-dwelling mite that is known to prey on various pests including economically important mites, fungus gnats and other terricolous arthropods. Considering that temperature is one of the most important factors affecting the population dynamics of arthropods, the development, survival and reproduction of L. japonicus were evaluated under indoor conditions at seven temperatures: 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 34 and 37 °C, at 75% relative humidity and L0:D24 h photoperiod. The mites were fed on the cereal mite Tyrophagus putrescentiae (Schrank) and the data were analyzed using the two-sex life table. The results demonstrated that L. japonicus could complete their development and reproduce at temperatures between 19 and 34 °C, but were unsuccessful at 37 °C. Increasing temperature shortened the development time of the pre-adult stage and the average generation time (T). The life table parameters indicated that at temperatures from 22 to 31 °C the development rate and reproduction of L. japonicus were highest: at 22, 25, 28 and 31 °C the net reproduction rate (R₀) was 55.5, 61.6, 61.2 and 59.0, respectively, and the average fecundity rate (F) was 81.7, 88.0, 102.0 and 86.8, respectively. The maximum values of intrinsic population growth rate (r) (0.341) and finite rate of increase (λ) (1.407) occurred at 31 °C.

     

Effect of temperature on the life-history traits of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Neoseiulus californicus</Emphasis> (Acari: Phytoseiidae) fed on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Panonychus ulmi</Emphasis>

The developmental rate and reproductive biology of Neoseiulus californicus, a generalist predator on spider mites and small insects, was investigated in the laboratory at five constant temperatures: 15, 20, 25, 30, and 34°C. The European red mite, Panonychus ulmi, an important pest in Korean apple orchards, was used as prey. Mean developmental time and adult longevity were inversely related to temperature from 15 to 30°C. Lifetime fecundity was greatest at 25°C, whereas daily fecundity was highest at 30°C. The sex ratio (female to male) was highest (0.77) at 25°C and lowest (0.67) at 34°C. Survivorship during immature development varied from 74.3 to 92.9%, with the lowest rate at 34°C. Life table parameters were analyzed and pseudo-replicates for the generation time (t _G ), the intrinsic rate of natural increase (r _m), finite rate of increase (λ), net reproductive rate (R ₀), and doubling time (t _D ) were generated using the Jackknife method. Generation time (t _G ) was lowest (10.7 days) at 34°C, R ₀ was highest (49.2) at 25°C, and both r _m (0.29) and λ (1.34) were highest at 30°C. In conclusion, the development and adult life-history traits obtained for N. californicus fed on P. ulmi indicated significant potential for biological control.     

Effect of temperature on development, survival, and fecundity of Microplitis manilae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

Microplitis manilae Ashmead (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), a larval parasitoid, is a potential biological control agent of both Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) and Spodoptera litura (F.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Aspects of the climatic requirements for development, including survival, longevity, and fecundity of M. manilae were studied at six constant temperature regimes (17, 20, 23, 26, 29, and 32°C) in the laboratory. The results showed that developmental duration for egg, larva, pupa, and the entire immature stages shortened in response to temperature increasing from 17 to 32°C. Survival rates of different developmental stages were higher at 20-29°C than at other temperatures. Longevity of M. manilae adults shortened with increasing temperature. The maximum fecundity of M. manilae female equaled 261.0 eggs/female at 26°C. Minimum threshold temperature and effective accumulated temperature for completing a generation of M. manilae were 11.04°C and 205.98 degrees-days, respectively. Both intrinsic rate of increase (r) and finite rate of increase (λ) of M. manilae did not differ between 26 and 29°C, but those were significantly higher at 26 and 29°C than at any other temperatures. The highest net reproduction rate (r(0)) was observed at 26°C, with the value of 97.77, but the lowest was 11.79 at 32°C. These results suggest that the parasitoid is well adapted to temperate and subtropical climates, which implies a significant potential for using M. manilae to control S. exigua because most of areas occupied by these two pests belong to temperate and subtropical regions in southeastern Asia.     

Walking speed adaptation ability of Myzus persicae to different temperature conditions

Walking speeds were calculated for nine clones of the peach potato aphid Myzus persicae collected from three countries along a latitudinal cline of its European distribution from Sweden to Spain (Sweden, UK and Spain), and the effects of collection origin and intra and intergenerational acclimation were investigated. Walking speeds declined with decreasing temperature, with maximum performance at temperatures closest to acclimation temperature (fastest median walking speed of 5.8 cm min(-1) was recorded for clone UK 3, collected from the UK, at 25°C after acclimating to 25°C for one generation). Following acclimation at both 20°C and 25°C, walking ceased (as indicated by median walking speeds of 0.0 cm min(-1)) at temperatures as high as 7.5°C and 12.5°C. However, acclimation at 10°C enabled mobility to occur to temperatures as low as 0°C. There was no relationship between mobility and latitude of collection, suggesting that large scale mixing of aphids may occur across Europe. However, clonal variation was suggested, with clone UK 3 outperforming the majority of other clones across all temperatures at which mobility was maintained following acclimation at 10°C for one and three generations and at 25°C for one generation. The Scandinavian clones consistently outperformed their temperate and Mediterranean counterparts at the majority of temperatures following acclimation for three generations at 25°C.     

Temperature-dependent development and demography of Scymnus subvillosus (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) reared on Hyalopterus pruni (Homoptera: Aphididae)

The development, survival, and fecundity of Scymnus subvillosus (Goeze) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) were studied at 20, 25, 30, and 35 degrees C, 60 +/- 5% RH, and a photoperiod of 16:8 (L:D) h (5,000 lux) under laboratory conditions. The total developmental time from egg hatch to adult eclosion ranged from 22.6 d at 20 degrees C to 10.6 d at 35 degrees C. The developmental rates of the egg stage, the larval stage, and total preadult stage at different temperatures increased linearly with increasing temperature. The thermal summation of the egg stage, the larval stage, and the total preadult stage was 77.5, 145.8 and 300 degree-days (DD), respectively. The developmental threshold of the egg stage, the larval stage, and the total preadult stage was 7.4, 4.1, and 7.1 degrees C, respectively. The life history raw data were analyzed using the age-stage, two-sex life table. The intrinsic rate of increase was 0.0845, 0.1138, 0.1395, and 0.0668 d(-1) at 20, 25, 30, and 35 degrees C, respectively. The net reproductive rate was highest at 25 degrees C (R0 = 78.7), and lowest at 35 degrees C (R0 = 4.7). The mean generation time was shortest at 35 degrees C (T = 23.9 d). The life table data can be used for the projection of population growth and designing mass rearing programs.     

Biological characteristics of Anticarsia gemmatalis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) for three consecutive generations under different temperatures: understanding the possible impact of global warming on a soybean pest

Climate changes can affect the distribution and intensity of insect infestations through direct effects on their life cycles. Experiments were carried out during three consecutive generations to evaluate the effect of different temperatures (25°C, 28°C, 31°C, 34°C and 37±1°C) on biological traits of the velvetbean caterpillar Anticarsia gemmatalis Hübner, 1818 (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). The insects were fed on artificial diet and reared in environmental chambers set at 14 h photophase. The developmental cycle slowed with the increase in the temperature, within the 25°C to 34°C range. Male and female longevities were reduced with an increase in temperature from 25°C to 28°C. Egg viability was highest at 25°C, and the sex ratio was not influenced by temperature, in the three generations. There was no interactive effect between development time and temperature on pupal weight. The results suggested that the increase in the temperature negatively impacted A. gemmatalis development inside the studied temperature range, indicating a possible future reduction of its occurrence on soybean crops, as a consequence of global warming, mainly considering its impact on tropical countries where this plant is cropped. A. gemmatalis was not able to adapt to higher temperatures in a three-generation interval for the studied temperature range. However, a gradual increase and a longer adaptation period may favor insect selection and consequently adaptation, and must be considered in future studies in this area. Moreover, it is important to consider that global warming might turn cold areas more suitable to A. gemmatalis outbreaks. Therefore, more than a future reduction of A. gemmatalis occurrence due to global warming, we might expect changes regarding its area of occurrence on a global perspective.     

Eclipse period of R1 plasmids during downshift from elevated copy number: Nonrandom selection of copies for replication

The classical Meselson-Stahl density-shift method was used to study replication of pOU71, a runaway-replication derivative of plasmid R1 in Escherichia coli. The miniplasmid maintained the normal low copy number of R1 during steady growth at 30°C, but as growth temperatures were raised above 34°C, the copy number of the plasmid increased to higher levels, and at 42°C, it replicated without control in a runaway replication mode with lethal consequences for the host. The eclipse periods (minimum time between successive replication of the same DNA) of the plasmid shortened with rising copy numbers at increasing growth temperatures (Olsson et al., 2003). In this work, eclipse periods were measured during downshifts in copy number of pOU71 after it had replicated at 39 and 42°C, resulting in 7- and 50-fold higher than normal plasmid copy number per cell, respectively. Eclipse periods for plasmid replication, measured during copy number downshift, suggested that plasmid R1, normally selected randomly for replication, showed a bias such that a newly replicated DNA had a higher probability of replication compared to the bulk of the R1 population. However, even the unexpected nonrandom replication followed the copy number kinetics such that every generation, the plasmids underwent the normal inherited number of replication, n, independent of the actual number of plasmid copies in a newborn cell.     

Effect of temperature on post-wintering development and total lipid content of alfalfa leafcutting bees

Temperature plays an important role in effective management of the alfalfa leafcutting bee [Megachile rotundata (F.); Megachilidae], the major commercial pollinator of seed alfalfa [Medicago sativa (L.); Fabaceae] in North America. To improve our understanding of threshold and optimum rearing temperatures of M. rotundata, we examined the effect of temperature on postwintering development by using a greater number of temperature treatments than applied in previous studies (19 versus eight or fewer) and analytical tools formulated to model nonlinear relationships between temperature and insect development rates. We also tested the hypothesis that rearing temperature influences adult body lipid content at emergence, which could affect adult survival, establishment and performance as a pollinator, and reproductive success. We found that the Lactin-2 and Briere-2 models provided the best fits to data and gave reasonable estimates of lower (16-18°C) and upper (36-39°C) developmental thresholds and optimum (33-34°C) rearing temperatures for maximizing development rate. Bees successfully emerged over a broad range of temperatures (22-35°C), but variation in development rate among individuals reared at the same temperature was lowest at 31-33°C. The optimum rearing temperature to maximize the proportion of body lipids in adults was 27-29°C. Our results are discussed in relation to previous findings and speak to the difficulties in designing practical rearing guidelines that simultaneously maximize development rate, survival, and adult condition, while synchronizing adult emergence with alfalfa bloom.     

Temperature thresholds and degree-day model for Marmara gulosa (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae)

The developmental thresholds for Marmara gulosa Guillén & Davis (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) were investigated in the laboratory by using 17, 21, 25, 29, and 33 degrees C. The lowest mortality occurred in cohorts exposed to 25 and 29 degrees C. Other temperatures caused >10% mortality primarily in egg and first and second instar sap-feeding larvae. Linear regression analysis approximated the lower developmental threshold at 12.2 degrees C. High mortality and slow developmental rate at 33 degrees C indicate the upper developmental threshold is near this temperature. The degree-day (DD) model indicated that a generation requires an accumulation of 322 DD for development from egg to adult emergence. Average daily temperatures in the San Joaquin Valley could produce up to seven generations of M. gulosa per year. Field studies documented two, five, and three overlapping generations of M. gulosa in walnuts (Juglans regia L.; Juglandaceae), pummelos (Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr.; Rutaceae), and oranges (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck; Rutaceae), for a total of seven observed peelminer generations. Degree-day units between generations averaged 375 DD for larvae infesting walnut twigs; however, availability of green wood probably affected timing of infestations. Degree-day units between larval generations averaged 322 for pummelos and 309 for oranges, confirming the laboratory estimation. First infestation of citrus occurred in June in pummelo fruit and August in orange fruit when fruit neared 60 mm in diameter. Fruit size and degree-day units could be used as management tools to more precisely time insecticide treatments to target the egg stage and prevent rind damage to citrus. Degree-day units also could be used to more precisely time natural enemy releases to target larval instars that are preferred for oviposition.     

Developmental times and age-specific life tables for Lygus lineolaris (Heteroptera: Miridae), reared at multiple constant temperatures

Developmental times and survivorship of tarnished plant bug nymphs, Lygus lineolaris (Palisot de Beauvois), and longevity and reproduction of adult tarnished plant bug adults reared on green beans were studied at multiple constant temperatures. The developmental time for each life stage and the total time from egg to adult decreased with increasing temperature. Eggs required the longest time to develop followed by fifth instars and then first-instars. Total developmental time from egg to adult was shortest at 32°C, requiring 18.0 ± 0.3 d and 416.7 ± 31.3 DD above 7.9°C, the estimated minimum temperature for development from egg to adult. Sex did not affect total developmental times and did not affect median survival time. Adults lived significantly fewer days at high temperatures (30-32°C: 17-19 d) compared with temperatures below 30°C (range: 24.5-39.4 d) and the number of eggs laid per day increased from ≈ 4 at 18°C to a maximum of 9.5 eggs per day at 30°C. Total egg production over the lifetime of female tarnished plant bugs increased with temperature reaching a maximum of 175 eggs on average at 27°C, total egg production declined at temperatures above 27°C (30°C: 110.8, 32°C: 77.3 eggs per female). The highest net reproductive rate 74.5 (R(0)) was obtained from insects maintained at 27°C. The intrinsic rate of natural increase (r(m)) increased linearly with temperature to a maximum value of 0.1852 at 30°C, and then decreased at 32°C. Generation and doubling times of the population were shortest at 30°C, 21.0 and 3.7 d, respectively.     

The effect of temperature on life history parameters of Tetranychus evansi (Acari: Tetranychidae)

The effect of four constant temperatures (21, 26, 31 and 36°C) on biological (survival and duration of developmental stages, fecundity and longevity of females and sex ratio) and demographic parameters (R0, G, rm and ) of Tetranychus evansi was studied in the laboratory under controlled conditions: 75 ± 10% RH and 12L : 12D. The lower thermal threshold was 10.3°C. The shortest developmental time (6.3 days) was obtained at 36°C. Maximum fecundity was recorded at 31°C with 123.3 eggs per female. The highest intrinsic rate of increase (rm) (0.355) was obtained at 31°C. The optimal temperature for population growth seems to be 34°C. © Rapid Science Ltd. 1998     

Survival of the mite Acarophenax lacunatus (Cross & Krantz) (Prostigmata: Acarophenacidae) under starvation

The ability of a natural enemy to tolerate starvation increases its chances to survive in the absence of food, what is an important factor for its success in storage grain environment. The objective of the present work was to assess the survival of Acarophenax lacunatus (Cross & Krantz) in the absence of food. The experiment used individualized physogastric females of A. lacunatus placed in petri dishes (5 cm diameter) and maintained at 20, 25, 28, 30 and 32 degrees C, 50+/-5 % R.H. and 24h scotophase. The number of live mites was recorded every 6h thus assessing the progeny survival without food at different temperatures. The mites died within 60h at the temperatures 30 degrees C and 32 degrees C, while they survived for up to 108h at 20, 25 and 28 degrees C. The mean lethal time for death was 58.6h for the lowest temperatures and 39.3h for the highest temperatures. Thus, A. lacunatus subjected to starvation lived longer under lower temperatures, what is probably due to its lower metabolism. In contrast, the mites survived for about 90h at 28 degrees C, temperature commonly observed in tropical and subtropical climates, what may favor their use as control agents of stored product insects in these regions.     

不同三叶草对二斑叶螨生长发育和繁殖的影响

【目的】明确红三叶、白三叶和杂三叶3种寄主对二斑叶螨Tetranychus urticae Koch生长发育和繁殖的影响,以及3种寄主间二斑叶螨的生物学差异。【方法】在室内(25±1)℃条件下,采用离体叶片法研究了3种三叶草对二斑叶螨种群参数的影响。【结果】3种三叶草对二斑叶螨生长发育、雌成螨寿命以及繁殖力有显著影响(P<0.05)。在杂三叶上,二斑叶螨发育历期、产卵前期明显比红三叶和白三叶上要长,而且雌成螨寿命和产卵期也明显缩短。每雌产卵量在红三叶上最高(150.87粒),白三叶次之(139.43粒),而杂三叶上最低(86.95粒)。二斑叶螨在3种三叶草上的存活曲线均为Ⅰ型,存活率高低依次为红三叶、白三叶和杂三叶。净增殖率(R0)、内禀增长率(rm)和周限增长率(λ)在红三叶上最高、杂三叶上最低,而平均世代周期(T)和种群加倍时间(Dt)在杂三叶上最长、红三叶上最短。【结论】3种三叶草对二斑叶螨的适合度具有一定差异,红三叶和白三叶对二斑叶螨具有更高的适合度。     

Biology, thermal requirements and fertility life table of the broad mite Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) (Acari: Tarsonemidae) in grape (Vitis vinifera L.) cv. Italia

The mite Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) constitutes one of the main pest of grape crop at the Submédio S?o Francisco Valley. The objective of this work was to study the biology of the broad mite Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks), to determine its thermal requirements and its fertility life table in grape (Vitis vinifera L.) cv. Italy. Acclimatized chambers (BOD) were used, adjusted to the temperatures of 18, 22, 25, 28 and 32 degrees C, relative humidity of 65 +/- 10% and alternated light of 12h. Egg-adult period was 3.4 and 6.8 days for males and 3.5 and 7.4 days for females, respectively at 32 degrees C and 18 degrees C. At the temperatures of 18, 25 and 32 degrees C, each female deposited, respectively, 16.5, 44.3 and 13.3 eggs. The stages of egg, larva and pupa and egg-adult period presented, respectively, thermal thresholds of 11.23, 9.45, 12.19, and 9.71 degrees C and thermal constant of 28.51, 14.59, 8.33, and 62.73 degrees-day. The mean duration of one generation (T) was 25.6, 10.8 and 8.2 days, respectively, at the temperatures of 18, 25 and 32 degrees C. The net reproductive rate (R0) at the temperature of 25 degrees C was the highest, corresponding to an increase of 30.12 times at each generation. The intrinsic rate of population increase (rm) was 0.10 (18 degrees C), 0.31 (25 degrees C) and 0.12 (32 degrees C) and the finite ratio of population increase (lambda) was 1.10 (18 degrees C), 1.36 (25 degrees C) and 1.13 (32 degrees C). According to the mean temperature values, P. latus can have 95 and 99 generations/year, respectively, for the municipal districts of Petrolina, PE and Juazeiro, BA.     

Life history of the mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), at constant temperatures

Important life history parameters of the mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green), were characterized on hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.) cuttings at six constant temperatures between 15 and 35 degrees C. The development of M. hirsutus was the fastest at 27 degrees C, where the mealybugs completed development in approximately 29 d. The lower (T(min)) and upper (T(max)) developmental thresholds and the optimal developmental temperature (T(opt)) for the development of female mealybugs were estimated as 14.5, 35, and 29 degrees C, respectively. The thermal constant (K), which is the number of temperature-day or degree-day units required for development, of the females was 347 DD. The original distribution range prediction (based on T(min) = 17.5 degrees C and K = 300 DD) indicated that M. hirsutus could complete at least one generation in all of the continental United States. However, results of this study suggested that the distribution range of M. hirsutus may expand northward because of the lower T(min), and the predicted number of generations in a year may be lower because of the higher K required to complete each generation. The average cumulative survival rate of M. hirsutus at 25 and 27 degrees C was 72%, which was significantly higher than 51 and 62% at 20 and 30 degrees C, respectively. M. hirsutus reproduced sexually, with each mated female producing 260-300 eggs between 20 and 27 degrees C but only approximately 100 eggs at 30 degrees C. Female longevity was reduced from 28 d at 20 degrees C to 19-21 d at 25-30 degrees C. At 27 degrees C, the net reproductive rate (R(o)) was estimated at 165 female symbol/female symbol, the intrinsic rate of population increase (r(m)) was 0.119 (female symbol/female symbol/d), the generation time (T(G)) was 43 d, and the doubling time (DT) was 5.8 d. The life table statistics suggested that the currently released biological control agents, which have higher r(m) than M. hirsutus, will be able to complete more generations than the mealybug within the tested temperature range; thus, they are effective against M. hirsutus.