Considerations in Developing a Functional Approach to the Governance of Large Marine Ecosystems

Interest in the management of the environment and its resources on an ecosystem basis has been increasing, in both terrestrial and marine contexts. In recent years, the concept of the large marine ecosystem has become a point of focus at the national and international levels as a possible unit for management of ocean and coastal areas. An ecosystem approach, however, challenges the manner in which marine resources and the environment that sustains them have been managed in the past. Governance is a key element in ecosystem management and encompasses the formal and informal arrangements, institutions, and mores that determine how resources and the environment are utilized. This study explores some of the problems, concepts, and principles involved in efforts to provide needed governance arrangements if large marine ecosystem-based management is to be implemented and made effective.     

The Gulf of Mexico--A Management Perspective

The Minerals Management Service (MMS) must foster developmentof marine mineral resources while protecting environmental resourcesand giving attention to other matters of social and economicconcern. In the conduct of its mission, MMS has, in recent years,sponsored a great deal of scientific research on the physicalenvironment and living resources of the northern Gulf of Mexico.The present article presents both the general management perspectiveand the regional management perspective of MMS, and it detailshow the scientific knowledge aids in dealing with concerns ofthe Agency. The general management perspective takes into accountthe resource and industry being regulated and the legislativeand regulatory framework, as well as the risk setting, socialsetting, and environmental setting. Application of each of theseelements within the eight regions of the northern Gulf permitsfocus upon matters of particular management concern. To date,there has been some environmental enhancement as a result ofoil and gas development activities in the northern Gulf andlittle deterioration of the marine environment. In general,the impacts of offshore oil and gas activities are manifestedin the coastal zone.     

The mangrove-based coastal and nearshore fisheries of Bangladesh: ecology,exploitation and management

The mangrove forest of Bangladesh, the largest continuous mangrove forest of the world, is one of the most important coastal features of the country. The existence of the mangrove has increased the values of other coastal and marine resources such as the coastal and marine fisheries by increasing productivity and supporting a wide biological diversity. The artisanal fishery, which is highly influenced by mangroves, has been contributing 85–95% of the total coastal and marine catch of Bangladesh. The mangrove also supports offshore and deep sea fisheries by playing a significant role as nursery ground for many deep sea fishes and shrimps including the giant tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) which is the major species of the industrial bottom trawl fishery of Bangladesh. The mangrove also contributes significantly in shrimp farming which has been the most significant export-oriented industry since the 1970s. However, the mangrove fisheries have been under intensive pressure from deleterious fishing activities and deliberate aquaculture development by destructing mangrove habitats. The impacts of mangrove have been reflected in the contribution of artisanal fishery catch that has been in a continuous decline since the 1980s. Shrimp farming has been the most destructive contributor to mangrove destruction with a corresponding loss of biological resources particularly the wild shrimp fishery. This paper reviews different aspects of the mangrove fisheries of Bangladesh and discusses the impacts of different fisheries. The paper identifies the importance of reviewing, amending and/or replacing the traditional management approaches by the new management techniques such as habitat restoration and stock enhancement in the natural environment; the paper also identifies the need for research findings in formulating and implementing new management approaches.     

基于“双核”新框架的烟台近岸海洋环境健康综合评价

海洋生态环境健康已成为制约海洋经济发展的关键因素,科学评估近岸海洋生态环境整体的健康状况对持续利用海洋资源环境十分紧要。本研究基于新构建的以海洋生态系统自身状态为内核、以人类社会经济学指标为外核的“双核”评价框架和2008—2016年的调查资料,对烟台近岸海洋环境健康状况进行综合评估。结果表明: 烟台近岸海域的内核评级以“优”、“良”为主,总体上沉积物质量最好,水体环境质量稍差,而生物群落则是决定最终评级的核心因素;外核评价方面,以海洋产业产值和海洋保护区面积计算的外核得分为0.98。烟台近海最终的“双核”评价结果为“优/良+0.98”,这表明烟台近岸海域在保持高开发利用程度的情况下,目前海域生态环境健康状况仍然良好,但部分区域已经开始恶化,需在发展海洋产业的同时予以密切关注。“双核”框架的评价结果可为海洋资源开发和环境保护的管理决策提供指导,对实现海洋资源环境的可持续利用具有重要意义。     

海洋可持续发展目标与海洋和滨海生态系统管理

海洋和海岸带可以为人类提供多种生态系统服务,保护与持续利用海洋资源以促进海洋和海岸带可持续发展已被正式纳入联合国可持续发展目标。实施海洋可持续发展目标面临几大挑战,包括如何减小陆基人类活动的影响、加强海岸带的综合管理、提高海洋资源效率、适应气候变化和提高沿海居民的人类福祉等。为应对这些挑战,需要将海洋和海岸带融合为一个大型生态系统,利用基于生态系统的管理方法,综合考虑各个部门和多种胁迫因素的累积影响,通过建立综合的海洋观测体系,合理划分海洋功能区,按照海洋环境承载力限制陆基人类活动,合理配置并有效利用海洋资源,提升海洋和海岸带生态系统的整体服务功能,从而进一步推进实施海洋可持续发展目标。     

Marine living resources management in the ASEAN region: lessons learned and the integrated management approach

This paper reviews the marine living resources management practices in the ASEAN region. Lessons learned from past management of these resources are highlighted with an analysis of impacts. The lack of an appropriate management policy at national and regional levels, inefficient enforcement measures, the rapid population growth and unsustainable economic development have all contributed to the degradation of the resource base in the marine environment of many ASEAN members.The need to establish a holistic and integrated management approach as well as action plans to mitigate the accelerated deterioration of the marine environmental quality and to promote sustainable use of resources is strongly emphasized in this paper. Recent changes in government policies in ASEAN towards sustainable development could provide valuable opportunities to arrest further resource depletion. The ASEAN initiation of integrated management of marine resources is a step towards the right direction.     

中国沿海省区海洋绿色发展测度及影响机理

海洋绿色发展是海洋高质量发展的重要内容,坚持生态优先和资源可持续的绿色发展模式对于海洋可持续的意义重大。在梳理了海洋绿色发展概念与内涵基础上,以沿海11省市为研究对象,基于2006-2017年沿海各省市的面板数据,建立海洋绿色发展评价指标体系,通过可变模糊识别模型对海洋绿色发展水平进行测度,并运用Arcgis软件和马尔可夫空间模型对其进行时空演变分析,最后运用面板数据模型进行影响因素分析。结果表明：①2006-2017年我国海洋绿色发展水平一直保持增长趋势,总体提高了19.6%,但整体仍呈中等水平,且地区差异明显。在空间分布上,空间集聚特征依然明显,东南沿海地区总体海洋绿色发展水平相对较高,西南和东北部分地区海洋绿色发展水平相对较低。②从时空演化特征来看,上海、天津、山东的海洋绿色发展水平相对较高,河北、广西的海洋绿色发展水平相对较低。区域背景对海洋绿色发展类型转移具有显著影响,高水平区域背景对海洋绿色发展水平增长具有辐射、促进作用,而低水平区域背景对增长具有制约、减缓作用。③从外部因素来看,政府调控、陆域经济水平和开放程度对海洋绿色发展有正向显著影响,环境治理有负向显著影响;从内部因素来看,海洋产业结构、海洋管理和海洋资源利用都有正向显著影响。根据总结以上结论,针对不同地区的海洋绿色发展情况提出不同的发展途径与对策,为海洋绿色发展提供科学的参考依据。     

Marine nematode deep‐sea biodiversity – hyperdiverse or hype?

Nematodes have been identified as a potentially hyperdiverse group and the deep sea as a potentially hyperdiverse environment (i.e. > 1 million species). A large-scale data set from the equatorial central Pacific is used to estimate regional diversity with results that challenge this view; regional diversity is higher in some coastal waters despite lower sample diversity in coastal waters than in the deep sea. The data suggests a paradigm where the deep sea has modest regional diversity, despite high local diversity through patch dynamics, because similar patches in a similar habitat are repeated for considerable distances. Disturbance in shallow water dominates over patch-dynamic mechanisms reducing local diversity but regional diversity is high because of the close packing of multiple habitats within a single region.
  The Pacific data are also used to demonstrate the pitfalls of extrapolating from local to global diversity. There is no reason to conclude that nematodes are less diverse than other benthic groups, indeed where direct comparison is possible the Nematoda appear to be as diverse as the Polychaeta, the most diverse macrofaunal taxon. This analysis is not consistent with the hypothesis that either marine nematodes or the deep-sea benthos are hyperdiverse raising the question whether any environment or metazoan taxon has more than a million species.     

Marine Biodiversity in South Africa: An Evaluation of Current States of Knowledge

Continental South Africa has a coastline of some 3,650 km and an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of just over 1 million km². Waters in the EEZ extend to a depth of 5,700 m, with more than 65% deeper than 2,000 m. Despite its status as a developing nation, South Africa has a relatively strong history of marine taxonomic research and maintains comprehensive and well-curated museum collections totaling over 291,000 records. Over 3 million locality records from more than 23,000 species have been lodged in the regional AfrOBIS (African Ocean Biogeographic Information System) data center (which stores data from a wider African region). A large number of regional guides to the marine fauna and flora are also available and are listed.The currently recorded marine biota of South Africa numbers at least 12,914 species, although many taxa, particularly those of small body size, remain poorly documented. The coastal zone is relatively well sampled with some 2,500 samples of benthic invertebrate communities have been taken by grab, dredge, or trawl. Almost none of these samples, however, were collected after 1980, and over 99% of existing samples are from depths shallower than 1,000 m—indeed 83% are from less than 100 m. The abyssal zone thus remains almost completely unexplored.South Africa has a fairly large industrial fishing industry, of which the largest fisheries are the pelagic (pilchard and anchovy) and demersal (hake) sectors, both focused on the west and south coasts. The east coast has fewer, smaller commercial fisheries, but a high coastal population density, resulting in intense exploitation of inshore resources by recreational and subsistence fishers, and this has resulted in the overexploitation of many coastal fish and invertebrate stocks. South Africa has a small aquaculture industry rearing mussels, oysters, prawns, and abalone—the latter two in land-based facilities.Compared with many other developing countries, South Africa has a well-conserved coastline, 23% of which is under formal protection, however deeper waters are almost entirely excluded from conservation areas. Marine pollution is confined mainly to the densely populated KwaZulu-Natal coast and the urban centers of Cape Town and Port Elizabeth. Over 120 introduced or cryptogenic marine species have been recorded, but most of these are confined to the few harbors and sheltered sites along the coast.     

A review on the present status and management of mangrove wetland habitat resources in Bangladesh with emphasis on mangrove fisheries and aquaculture

The mangrove forest of Bangladesh, the largest continuous mangrove bulk, is one of the most important features of the coastal area of the country. The existence of the mangrove has increased the values of other coastal and marine resources such as the coastal and marine fisheries by increasing productivity and supporting a wide biological diversity. The deltaic mangrove of Bangladesh is ecologically different from the other, mostly nondeltaic mangroves of the world and is unique also in its floral and faunal assemblage; therefore, a number of endangered plants and animals that are extinct from other parts of the world, are existing in Bangladesh mangrove. However, the mangrove has been under intensive pressure of exploitation for the last few decades which, in addition to direct clearance and conversion have placed the mangrove under extreme threat. Shrimp farming is the most destructive form of resource use the mangrove has been converted to, which contributed significantly to mangrove destruction with a corresponding loss of biological resources. Concerns have been raised among the ecologists, biologists, managers and policy makers since the early 1990s; deliberate destruction of mangrove and unplanned development of coastal aquaculture particularly shrimp aquaculture have been put under extreme criticism and the sustainability has been questioned. The present status of the mangrove resources including mangrove fisheries and aquaculture and management practices have been reviewed in this paper; impacts of different forms of human interventions and resource use have also been discussed. It is suggested that the management options and the policy aspects should be critically reviewed and amended accordingly; beneficiaries and stakeholders at all levels of resource exploitation must take part and contribute to conservation and management. An immediate need for mangrove conservation has been identified.     

Regional Cooperation in the South China Sea: Analysis of Existing Practices and Prospects

This article identifies potential areas of cooperation in the South China Sea, particularly on ocean-related matters. Several regional mechanisms related to marine and coastal environments have been established and, to an extent, have achieved their goals. Nevertheless, some improvements to existing mechanisms are highly desirable. Recommended is a regional mechanism that involves all bordering parties; limits its geographic scope to the South China Sea; is initiated and operates without the assistance of global organizations; is embodied in a legally binding instrument; and broadens the scope of cooperation to include marine living resources, maritime safety, and maritime security.     

陆源人类活动对近海生态系统的影响

随着海岸带快速城市化和经济发展,人类活动对近海生态系统的影响日益增加。通过对国内外大量相关文献的分析和与国际专家的研讨,分别从海洋资源开发、海岸带城市化和环境变化等几个方面概述了陆源人类活动对近海生态系统的影响。目前陆源人类活动导致近海生态系统出现的主要问题有:海洋生物资源过度捕捞、海岸带富营养化、海洋酸化、珊瑚礁退化、海洋垃圾、以及海岸带矿产开采等高强度开发活动引发的重金属和持久性有机污染物污染等。这些问题会直接导致海洋生物群落结构变化、影响水质、降低海洋生物多样性,最终影响海洋生态系统服务功能,威胁海洋生态系统健康。这些问题的根源多来自陆地,必须将海洋和陆地作为一个有机整体,整合海陆系统相互作用的科学计划,推进海洋资源和近海生态系统的可持续管理。     

Distribution and genetic diversity of the parasitic dinoflagellate Amoebophrya in coastal waters of China

Amoebophrya is an obligate endoparasite infecting wide ranges of marine organisms in coastal and oceanic waters. The parasitoid has received growing attention, due to its enormous genetic diversity in seawaters and suppressive effects on the growth of host dinoflagellates. Harmful algal blooms (HABs) caused by planktonic dinoflagellates have significantly impacted the coastal environment and mariculture in China. Series of studies have been conducted to reveal the occurrence mechanism and negative impacts of HABs in past decades, while the factors contributing to the recession of HABs have rarely been studied. Thus, the host range, prevalence and diversity of Amoebophrya along the coastline of China were systemically investigated to facilitate future studies on the ecological roles of the parasitoid. Overall, 10 dinoflagellate taxa were found to be infected by Amoebophrya spp., and the prevalence ranged from 0.03% to 2.50%. Sequencing of environmental genomic DNA revealed substantial diversity and significant regional heterogeneity of Amoebophryidae sequences derived from 12 coastal bays, while no significant correlation was observed among geographical locations. Phylogenetic analyses of 18S rDNA sequences derived from individual Amoebophrya-infected cells indicated the host divergence of the parasitoid and lend credence to the multiple species assumption. The results further revealed the broad host range, wide distribution and substantial diversity of Amoebophrya in the coastal waters of China, that should not be neglected in future studies on the succession of HABs, as well as the ecological significance of this parasitoid in marine microbial food webs.     

Spatial analysis of Protected Areas of the coastal/marine environment of Brazil

This study analyses the spatial distribution pattern of the Protected Areas (PA) of the Brazilian coastal and marine environments using Ripley's function. The PA are classified in accordance with the three Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) of the Brazilian coast, also incorporating the divisions provided in the National Coastal Management Plan. The similarity among management strategies in the three LME was analysed by the Morisita-Horn index. The assumptions are as follows: (i) the PA will be aggregated in the coastal environment for the three LME and (ii) differences exist with regard to the similarities within and between the LME. The analysed PA showed an aggregate pattern for shorter distances and a uniform pattern for longer distances. These patterns were significant for the East Coast and the South Platform. The management similarity was greater between the East Coast and the South Platform, suggesting that these two LME use similar strategies to manage natural resources. The coastal environment is more protected than the marine environment. Results indicate that the marine environment has a small number of protected environments. Both environments use more frequently the management model of Sustainable-Use Protected Area, with the participation of several social players in the management area. The country is still far from reaching the Targets of Aichi and of the Ministry of the Environment.     

Perspectives of the conservation of the marine and coastal ecosystems in the frame of the realization of the Convention on Biological Diversity

The specifics of the international and regional activity in the context of the realization of the Convention on Biological Diversity has been analyzed. The global aims, tasks, and criteria of the working program of the Convention on marine and coastal biodiversity are discussed. The actual direction of the investigations is analyzed; program actions are planned; arrangements essential for conservation of the biodiversity of marine and coastal ecosystems are proposed.     

Marine Coastal Resources as an Engine of Development for the Lafkenche and Williche Populations of Southern Chile

Abstract

Lafkenche and Williche, the Mapuche coastal population in Chile, used coastal marine areas and resources for centuries. The Spanish colonization and the subsequent establishment of the Republic of Chile curtailed these access rights and traditional uses. In 2008, the government of Chile introduced the “Lafkenche Law” establishing exclusive access rights for traditional indigenous use of coastal marine areas and resources, but the law has not led to effective self-determination or the development of the ethnic Mapuche populations. Interviews with indigenous community leaders in October 2014 confirmed their dissatisfaction with this law. This article discusses whether the experience of other nations, such as the innovative Community Development Quota Program in Alaska in the United States, which allocates a portion of certain species in the Bering Sea to coastal communities, can help overcome marine resources access barriers affecting the Mapuche people.     

Predator–rodent–plant interactions along a coast–inland gradient in Fennoscandian tundra

Spatial variation in the strength of trophic cascades in arctic tundra has been related to flows of subsidies across ecosystem boundaries. Here, we ask whether the input of marine subsidies in tundra systems would cause spatial variation in the strength of rodent–plant interactions between coastal areas, where predators have access to marine‐derived resources, and non‐subsidized inland areas of northern Fennoscandia. We present a detailed evaluation of predator–rodent–vegetation interactions along a coast‐inland gradient, during the 2011 rodent outbreak and the two following decline years, by using direct assessments of rodent impacts and tracing of marine‐derived nutrients in the food web. Our results revealed that the main rodent predator during summer, the long‐tailed jaeger Stercorarius longicaudus, did not benefit from marine resources while breeding (relative dietary proportion in chicks’ diet = 0–3%). Contrary to this pattern, parasitic jaegers S. parasiticus, bred exclusively near the coast and preyed effectively on both marine resources (41% of chicks’ diet) and rodents (12%). Mammalian predators also showed a higher activity during winter near the coast. Despite overall higher predator numbers, no evidence was found for lower rodent population growth rates during the three monitoring summers and for weaker rodent grazing impacts in the coastal area. Instead, we documented pronounced damages caused by lemmings and voles on bryophytes and vascular plants, especially dwarf shrubs (e.g. Vaccinum myrtillus) all along the coast–inland gradient. Taken together, our results did not support the hypothesis that marine subsidies would trigger a trophic cascade in coastal tundra areas of northern Fennoscandia during a major rodent outbreak, probably due to a relatively low diversity of marine‐subsidized predators in the region. Comparative observational and experimental studies at large spatial scales in various arctic regions are absolutely necessary for a better understanding of factors causing regional variations in the functioning of arctic food webs.     

海岸带区域综合承载力评估指标体系的构建与应用——以南通市为例

借鉴"驱动力-压力-状态-响应-控制力"概念模型,依据数据可获取性,构建海岸带区域综合承载力评估指标体系和评价标准。以江苏省南通市海岸带为例,利用状态空间法开展研究区2005年、2008年和2009年综合承载力评估,五县(市)陆域、滩涂、海洋和区域的综合承载力基本处于可载状态,部分县(市)出现满载。从2005年至2009年,滩涂、海洋和区域综合承载力基本呈上升趋势,海门市海洋和区域的综合承载力上升分别为124.61%和142.98%;而陆域综合承载力呈下降趋势,如东县下降达22.42%。基于指标承载力贡献率分析,污染物及能耗、区域经济发展水平和环境压力是影响综合承载力关键因子。海岸带区域综合承载力的评估与分析,可作为制定区域发展规划的重要依据。     

基于脆弱性视角的环渤海地区人海关系地域系统时空特征及演化分析

脆弱性已成为全球环境变化与可持续性科学研究的前沿领域,人海关系地域系统作为海洋地理学研究的重要内容,研究一定地域范围内人海地理空间的结构特征及演变规律。以环渤海地区为例,首先,对其海洋资源、海洋科技力量和人才资源及海洋基础设施等进行概述,分析海洋经济的发展过程;其次,以脆弱性为切入点,运用集对分析法分析环渤海地区人海关系地域系统脆弱性演进及影响因素;最后,运用三角图法对1996—2012年环渤海地区人海关系地域系统脆弱性进行类型分异,进而有针对性地提出降低脆弱性的对策。结果表明:(1)环渤海地区人海关系地域系统脆弱性指数发展变化不同,但均呈下降态势,稳定性显著增强;(2)环渤海地区人海关系地域系统脆弱性属于单一子系统脆弱型的次数较少,复合子系统脆弱型和均衡脆弱型是主要类型,出现次数较多;(3)可通过加强陆海统筹,优化海洋产业结构,加强海洋污染治理,推进海洋科学技术创新,加快人才培养和加强基础设施建设等措施实现降低人海关系地域系统脆弱性。     

海岛生态服务功能保护初探

生态系统是人类经济社会生存和发展的基础。海岛作为人类通向海洋的桥头堡,保护海岛及其周边海域生态系统,对于维护国家海洋权益,保障海防安全,发展海洋经济、保护海洋生态、构建和谐社会等具有重要战略意义。本文从介绍海岛生态系统功能特征及服务价值入手,分析了海岛生态系统服务功能受损的深层原因及对其带来的负面影响,并在此基础上,提出了摸清海岛生态资源状况、规范海岛开发秩序、实施海岛生态修复与整治工程,推进海岛保护区建设,加强海岛生态环境保护的科学研究与国际合作,以及多渠道获取海岛生态保护资金等方面策略,初步探讨了海岛生态服务功能的保护。