Physical fitness profile of Army ROTC cadets

One role of Army Reserved Officer's Training Corps (ROTC) programs is to physically prepare cadets for the demands of a military career. Cadets participate in physical training 3 days per week as part of their military science curriculum. Limited research has been conducted on the fitness level of ROTC cadets; therefore, the purpose of this study was to profile the physical fitness status of a cadre of ROTC cadets. Forty-three cadets (30 men and 13 women) performed Army Physical Fitness Test (APFT) assessments (2-mile run, 2-minute maximum push-ups and sit-ups) and clinical assessments of fitness (Bruce protocol Vo(2)max, underwater weighing, and 1 repetition maximum [1RM] bench press tests). Mean +/- standard deviations were calculated to provide the physical fitness profile for each parameter. Male cadets (21 +/- 2.2 years; height 177.4 +/- 6.6 cm; mass 79.2 +/- 9.4 kg) scored 49.6 +/- 6.1 ml.kg(-1).min(-1) for Vo(2)max, 14.8 +/- 4.2% fat, 86.5 +/- 24.9 kg 1RM bench press, 2-mile run of 13.97 +/- 1.4 minutes, 70.5 +/- 12.8 sit-ups, and 60.2 +/- 13.2 push-ups. Female cadets (20 +/- 2.4 years; height 165.1 +/- 8.0 cm; mass 63.5 +/- 10.0 kg) scored 40.8 +/- 3.9 ml.kg(-1).min(-1) for Vo(2) max, 23.9 +/- 3.8% fat, 35.3 +/- 8.2 kg 1RM bench press, 2-mile run of 17.0 +/- 1.6 minutes, 65.0 +/- 12.9 sit-ups, and 33.3 +/- 11.2 push-ups. The mean scores were above the 83rd percentile on all APFT items and average (percent fat) to above average (Vo(2)max and men's bench press scores) when compared with peer-age and sex-corrected norms. Only the women's bench press score was below average. With the exception of the women's bench press, these ROTC cadets possessed average to above average levels of fitness.     

Musculoskeletal capacity of employees aged 44 to 58 years in physical, mental and mixed types of work

The musculoskeletal capacity of 60 women and 69 men, average age 52.3 +/- 3.7 years was determined, including measurements of anthropometry, maximal isometric trunk flexion and extension, sit-ups, isometric hand grip strength and back mobility. According to the job and to cluster analysis, the subjects were divided into three dominating work groups; physical, mental, and mixed groups. The results showed significant differences in right hand grip strength of the women and in the number of sit-ups by men among the three work groups (p less than 0.05). The differences between the other tests were not significant, although the physical group in the women and either the physical or the mixed group in the men had systematically the lowest mean values in almost all tests. It is concluded that jobs with mainly physical demands do not guarantee superior musculoskeletal capacity in older employees.     

Four-week dynamic stretching warm-up intervention elicits longer-term performance benefits

The purpose of this study was to determine whether a dynamic-stretching warm-up (DWU) intervention performed daily over 4 weeks positively influenced power, speed, agility, endurance, flexibility, and strength performance measures in collegiate wrestlers when compared to a static-stretching warm-up (SWU) intervention. Twenty-four male National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I wrestlers were randomly assigned to complete either a 4-week treatment condition (DWU) (n = 11) or an active control condition (SWU) (n = 13) prior to their daily preseason practices. Anthropometric and performance measures were conducted before and after the 4-week experimental period (i.e., DWU or SWU). Measures included peak torque of the quadriceps and hamstrings, medicine ball underhand throw, 300-yd shuttle, pull-ups, push-ups, sit-ups, broad jump, 600-m run, sit-and-reach test, and trunk extension test. Wrestlers completing the 4-week DWU intervention had several performance improvements, including increases in quadriceps peak torque (11%), broad jump (4%), underhand medicine ball throw (4%), sit-ups (11%), and push-ups (3%). A decrease in the average time to completion of the 300-yd shuttle (-2%) and the 600-m run (-2.4%) was suggestive of enhanced muscular strength, endurance, agility, and anaerobic capacity in the DWU group. In contrast to the DWU intervention, there was no observed improvement in the SWU group for peak torque of the quadriceps, broad jump, 300-yd shuttle run, medicine ball underhand throw for distance, sit-ups, push-ups, or 600-m run, and decrements in some performance measures occurred. The findings suggest that incorporation of this specific 4-week DWU intervention into the daily preseason training regimen of wrestlers produced longer-term or sustained power, strength, muscular endurance, anaerobic capacity, and agility performance enhancements.     

The validity and reliability of the 1RM bench press using chain-loaded resistance

The purposes of this study were to determine the validity and test-retest reliability of the 1 repetition maximum (1RM) chain-loaded, free-weight bench press (CBP) and to examine possible learning effects that may occur between the test-retest measurements. Nine resistance-trained men (20.58 +/- 1.31 years, 188.24 +/- 9.29 cm, 92.07 +/- 16.94 kg) and seven resistance-trained women (20.42 +/- 0.98 years, 175.61 +/- 9.32 cm, 73.61 +/- 10.80 kg) participating in Division II college basketball completed this study. Two familiarization sessions took place using light to moderate loads to learn proper technique. The subjects completed a 1RM test on the traditional plate-loaded bench press 4 days before completion of the CBP 1RM, which was followed by 4 days of rest before completing the retest. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and the percent coefficients of variation (CV) were used to determine relative and absolute test-retest reliability. Concurrent validity was determined from the Pearson correlation coefficients between the CBP and the plate-loaded bench press. Test-retest differences were analyzed with the paired t-test. ICC and CV for the men (r = 0.99, 1.4%) and women (r = 0.93, 3.5%), respectively indicate that highly reproducible 1RM scores can be found with the CBP. High validity was also found with high correlations between the CBP and plate-loaded bench press for the men (r = 0.95) and women (r = 0.80). A statistically significant (p = 0.04) but clinically small (2.57 kg) shift in the mean occurred between the CBP test and retest for the men, whereas no change occurred for the women. The data indicate that valid and reliable 1RM scores can be found after two familiarization sessions in men and women athletes who have previous resistance training experience.     

Comparison of muscle activation using various hand positions during the push-up exercise

Popular fitness literature suggests that varied hand placements during push-ups may isolate different muscles. Scientific literature, however, offers scant evidence that varied hand placements elicit different muscle responses. This study examined whether different levels of electromyographic (EMG) activity in the pectoralis major and triceps brachii muscles are required to perform push-ups from each of 3 different hand positions: shoulder width base, wide base, and narrow base hand placements. Forty subjects, 11 men and 29 women, performed 1 repetition of each push-up. The EMG activity for subjects' dominant arm pectoralis major and triceps brachii was recorded using surface electrodes. The EMG activity was greater in both muscle groups during push-ups performed from the narrow base hand position compared with the wide base position (p < 0.05). This study suggests that, if a goal is to induce greater muscle activation during exercise, then push-ups should be performed with hands in a narrow base position compared with a wide base position.     

Associations of maximal strength and muscular endurance test scores with cardiorespiratory fitness and body composition

The purpose of the present study was to assess the relationships between maximal strength and muscular endurance test scores additionally to previously widely studied measures of body composition and maximal aerobic capacity. 846 young men (25.5 ± 5.0 yrs) participated in the study. Maximal strength was measured using isometric bench press, leg extension and grip strength. Muscular endurance tests consisted of push-ups, sit-ups and repeated squats. An indirect graded cycle ergometer test was used to estimate maximal aerobic capacity (V(O2)max). Body composition was determined with bioelectrical impedance. Moreover, waist circumference (WC) and height were measured and body mass index (BMI) calculated. Maximal bench press was positively correlated with push-ups (r = 0.61, p < 0.001), grip strength (r = 0.34, p < 0.001) and sit-ups (r = 0.37, p < 0.001) while maximal leg extension force revealed only a weak positive correlation with repeated squats (r = 0.23, p < 0.001). However, moderate correlation between repeated squats and V(O2)max was found (r = 0.55, p < 0.001) In addition, BM and body fat correlated negatively with muscular endurance (r = -0.25 - -0.47, p < 0.001), while FFM and maximal isometric strength correlated positively (r = 0.36-0.44, p < 0.001). In conclusion, muscular endurance test scores were related to maximal aerobic capacity and body fat content, while fat free mass was associated with maximal strength test scores and thus is a major determinant for maximal strength. A contributive role of maximal strength to muscular endurance tests could be identified for the upper, but not the lower extremities. These findings suggest that push-up test is not only indicative of body fat content and maximal aerobic capacity but also maximal strength of upper body, whereas repeated squat test is mainly indicative of body fat content and maximal aerobic capacity, but not maximal strength of lower extremities.     

Influence of age and gender on upper airway resistance in NREM and REM sleep.

The prevalence of irregular breathing during sleep is age and gender dependent, but the reason for this is unknown. This study tested the hypothesis that older men have a greater sleep-related increase in respiratory resistance. In 48 healthy subjects, 12 in each of four groups of younger and older men and women, airway resistance was measured during wakefulness and sleep using a mask, pneumotachograph, and catheter-mounted pressure sensors. Total respiratory resistance and total "low-flow," and "high-flow" oropharyngeal resistance were analyzed from 170,000 breaths, high flow being at rates above 50% maximal inspiratory flow. High-flow oropharyngeal and total respiratory resistance increased during non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep in all groups but not low-flow resistance. Total respiratory resistance increased from 12 +/- 1.2 cmH(2)O. l(-1). s(-1) awake to 16.2 +/- 2.4 in NREM sleep in young men, from 22.8 +/- 3.6 to 33.6 +/- 5.4 in young women, from 18 +/- 3 to 34.8 +/- 4.8 in older men, and from 26.6. +/- 4.2 to 34.2 +/- 6 in older women. The percentage of change in total respiratory resistance from awake to NREM sleep was not different between age groups or genders. We conclude that there are no major age or gender differences in the changes in airway resistance with sleep in normal subjects.     

Acute hormonal responses to submaximal and maximal heavy resistance and explosive exercises in men and women

The purpose of this study was to examine acute hormonal and neuromuscular responses in men and women to 3 heavy resistance but clearly different exercise protocols: (a) submaximal heavy resistance exercise (SME), (b) maximal heavy resistance exercise (HRE), and (c) maximal explosive resistance exercise (EE). HRE included 5 sets of 10 repetition maximum (10RM) sit-ups, bench press, and bilateral leg extensions (David 210 machine) with a 2-minute recovery between the sets. In SME, the load was 70%, and in EE, the load was 40% from that used in HRE. A significant increase (p < 0.05) in serum growth hormone (GH) was observed after HRE both in men and women, but the increase was greater (p < 0.05) in men than in women. Serum testosterone (T) increased significantly (p < 0.05) only during HRE in men. Since GH and T are anabolic hormones, the acute exercise-induced response during HRE may play an important role in the long-term anabolic adaptation processes related to muscle hypertrophy and maximal strength development.     

A comparison of adductor pollicis fatigue in older men and women

Sex differences in fatigue resistance of the adductor pollicis (AP) muscle were studied in 24 older adults who were divided into three groups: 12 older men (69.8 +/- 4.60 years), 6 older women not on hormone replacement therapy (HRT) (70.2 +/- 4.02 years), and 6 older women on HRT (68.7 +/- 6.47 years). Fatigue in the AP muscle was induced using an intermittent (5 s contraction, 5 s rest) submaximal voluntary contraction (50% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC)) protocol, which was continued until exhaustion (i.e., when subjects could either no longer maintain a 5-s contraction at 50% MVC or when the MVC was deemed to be lower than the target force). There was no effect of HRT on MVC or time to fatigue (TTF); therefore, the older women were pooled as one subject group. At baseline, men were stronger than women for MVC (75.9 +/- 18.8 N in men vs. 56.8 +/- 10.0 N in women; P < 0.05) and evoked twitch force (7.3 +/- 1.7 N in men vs. 5.2 +/- 0.8 N in women; P < 0.05). There was no difference in TTF between men and women (14.77 +/- 7.06 min in men vs. 11.53 +/- 4.91 min in women; P > 0.20), nor was there a significant relationship between baseline muscle force and TTF (r = 0.14). There was also no difference in the pattern of fatigue and recovery between the men and women. These results suggest that there is no difference in endurance or fatigue characteristics of the AP muscle in men and women over the age of 65 years, and that baseline muscle force does not predict fatigue resistance in this muscle.     

Influence of gender on upper airway mechanics: upper airway resistance and Pcrit.

It has been proposed that the difference in sleep apnea prevalence is related to gender differences in upper airway anatomy and physiology. To explain the prevalence difference, we hypothesized that men would have an increased upper airway resistance and increased critical closing pressure (Pcrit) compared with women. In protocol 1, resistance at two points, fixed flow of 0.2 l/s (RL) and peak flow (Rpk), was measured in 33 men and 27 women without significant sleep-disordered breathing. We found no difference in either RL (-6.9 +/- 5.9 vs. -8.6 +/- 8.2 cmH2O) or Rpk (-9.3 +/- 6.8 vs. -10.0 +/- 11.9 cmH2O) between the men and women. A multiple linear regression to correct for the effects of age and body mass index confirmed that gender had no effect on resistance. In protocol 2, Pcrit was measured in eight men and eight women without sleep-disordered breathing. We found no difference in Pcrit (-10.4 +/- 3.1 vs. -8.8 +/- 2.7 cmH2O) between men and women. We conclude that there are no significant differences in collapsibility between men and women. We present an unifying hypothesis to explain the divergent findings of gender differences in upper airway physiology.     

Impact of sex and chronic resistance training on human patellar tendon dry mass, collagen content, and collagen cross-linking

Collagen content and cross-linking are believed to be major determinants of tendon structural integrity and function. Sex and chronic resistance training have been shown to alter tendon function and may also alter the key structural features of tendon. Patellar tendon biopsies were taken from untrained men [n = 8, 1 repetition maximum (RM) = 53 +/- 3 kg], untrained women (n = 8, 1 RM = 29 +/- 2 kg), and resistance-trained (10 +/- 1 yr of training) men (n = 8, 1 RM = 71 +/- 6 kg). Biopsies were analyzed for dry mass, collagen content, and collagen cross-linking (hydroxylysylpyridinoline). We hypothesized that these elements of tendon structure would be lower in women than men, whereas chronic resistance training would increase these parameters in men. Tendon dry mass was significantly lower in women than men (343 +/- 5 vs. 376 +/- 8 microg dry mass/mg tendon wet wt, P < 0.01) and was not influenced by chronic resistance training (P > 0.05). The lower tendon dry mass in women tended to reduce (P = 0.08) collagen content per tendon wet weight. Collagen content of the tendon dry mass was not influenced by sex or resistance training (P > 0.05). Similarly, cross-linking of collagen was unaltered (P > 0.05) by sex or training. Although sex alters the water content of patellar tendon tissue, any changes in tendon function with sex or chronic resistance training in men do not appear to be explained by alterations in collagen content or cross-linking of collagen within the dry mass component of the tendon.     

Heat acclimation and physical training adaptations of young women using different contraceptive hormones

Although endogenous and exogenous steroid hormones affect numerous physiological processes, the interactions of reproductive hormones, chronic exercise training, and heat acclimation are unknown. This investigation evaluated the responses and adaptations of 36 inactive females [age 21 +/- 3 (SD) yr] as they undertook a 7- to 8-wk program [heat acclimation and physical training (HAPT)] of indoor heat acclimation (90 min/day, 3 days/wk) and outdoor physical training (3 days/wk) while using either an oral estradiol-progestin contraceptive (ORAL, n = 15), a contraceptive injection of depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DEPO, n = 7), or no contraceptive (EU-OV, n = 14; control). Standardized physical fitness and exercise-heat tolerance tests (36.5 degrees C, 37% relative humidity), administered before and after HAPT, demonstrated that the three subject groups successfully (P < 0.05) acclimated to heat (i.e., rectal temperature, heart rate) and improved muscular endurance (i.e., sit-ups, push-ups, 4.6-km run time) and body composition characteristics. The stress of HAPT did not disrupt the menstrual cycle length/phase characteristics, ovulation, or plasma hormone concentrations of EU-OV. No between-group differences (P > 0.05) existed for rectal and skin temperatures or metabolic, cardiorespiratory, muscular endurance, or body composition variables. A significant difference post-HAPT in the onset temperature of local sweating, ORAL (37.2 +/- 0.4 degrees C) vs. DEPO (37.7 +/- 0.2 degrees C), suggested that steroid hormones influenced this adaptation. In summary, virtually all adaptations of ORAL and DEPO were similar to EU-OV, suggesting that exogenous reproductive hormones neither enhanced nor impaired the ability of women to complete 7-8 wk of strenuous physical training and heat acclimation.     

Hemodynamics of orthostatic intolerance: implications for gender differences

Women have a greater incidence of orthostatic intolerance than men. We hypothesized that this difference is related to hemodynamic effects on regulation of cardiac filling rather than to reduced responsiveness of vascular resistance during orthostatic stress. We constructed Frank-Starling curves from pulmonary capillary wedge pressure (PCWP), stroke volume (SV), and stroke index (SI) during lower body negative pressure (LBNP) and saline infusion in 10 healthy young women and 13 men. Orthostatic tolerance was determined by progressive LBNP to presyncope. LBNP tolerance was significantly lower in women than in men (626.8 +/- 55.0 vs. 927.7 +/- 53.0 mmHg x min, P < 0.01). Women had steeper maximal slopes of Starling curves than men whether expressed as SV (12.5 +/- 2.0 vs. 7.1 +/- 1.5 ml/mmHg, P < 0.05) or normalized as SI (6.31 +/- 0.8 vs. 4.29 +/- 0.6 ml.m-2.mmHg-1, P < 0.05). During progressive LBNP, PCWP dropped quickly at low levels, and reached a plateau at high levels of LBNP near presyncope in all subjects. SV was 35% and SI was 29% lower in women at presyncope (both P < 0.05). Coincident with the smaller SV, women had higher heart rates but similar mean arterial pressures compared with men at presyncope. Vascular resistance and plasma norepinephrine concentration were similar between genders. We conclude that lower orthostatic tolerance in women is associated with decreased cardiac filling rather than reduced responsiveness of vascular resistance during orthostatic challenges. Thus cardiac mechanics and Frank-Starling relationship may be important mechanisms underlying the gender difference in orthostatic tolerance.     

Gender differences in hockey players during on-ice graded exercise

The purpose of this study was to examine whether gender differences exist for ventilatory threshold (VT), lactate threshold (LT), and Vo2max during on-ice skating in college hockey players. Ten male and 10 female Division III college hockey players performed a graded exercise skating protocol until reaching volitional fatigue. The graded exercise test employed stages that were 80 seconds in duration, with 40 seconds of rest between each stage to obtain blood lactate samples. Ventilatory threshold occurred at a higher percentage of maximal heart rate (HRmax) in women than in men. The women's VT occurred at 77.3% +/- 1.6% HRmax, while the men's VT occurred at 72.6% +/- 2.0% HRmax (p < 0.02). Men and women had similar HRmax values: 191.3 +/- 2.5 b.min and 185.8 +/- 2.5 b.min, respectively. Vo2max was different between genders, with men at 52.7 +/- 1.3 mL.kg.min and women at 40.1 +/- 1.0 mL.kg.min (p < 0.01). In addition, VT was different between genders when measured as a percentage of Vo2max, with men at 52.7% +/- 3.2% and women at 67.3% +/- 4.0% (p < 0.02). In contrast, LT was similar between genders when expressed as a percentage of HRmax or Vo2max. For each gender, LT occurred at a significantly higher percentage of HRmax or Vo2max than VT did. It can be concluded that VT does not accurately predict LT in male or female hockey players. Additionally, competitive female hockey players have a lower Vo2max but a higher VT than their male counterparts. An increased VT may be a compensatory mechanism to offset the smaller Vo2max values measured in female hockey players. On-ice testing is a practical way to address specific aerobic training needs of hockey players.     

Effect of gender on vestibular sympathoexcitation

Studies have suggested that premenopausal women are more prone to orthostatic intolerance than men. Additionally, it has been postulated that the vestibulosympathetic reflex is important in regulating postural-related changes in sympathetic activity. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether men and women differ in their sympathetic and cardiovascular responses to stimulation of the otolith organs elicited by head-down rotation (HDR). Heart rate (HR), arterial pressure, calf blood flow (CBF), and leg muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) were measured during 3 min of HDR in the prone posture in 33 women and 30 men. With the exception of HR (71 +/- 2 and 63 +/- 1 beats/min for women and men, respectively; P < 0.01), all baseline variables were not different between genders. There were no gender differences in responses to HDR. MSNA increased 72 +/- 33 units (43%) in the men and 88 +/- 15 units (59%) in the women during HDR (P < 0.01). CBF decreased [-0.6 +/- 0.1 (15%) and -0.5 +/- 0.1 (19%) ml. min(-1). 100 ml(-1)] and calf vascular resistance increased [8 +/- 2 (21%) and 11 +/- 3 (25%) units during HDR for men and women, respectively (P < 0.01)]. Both in the men and women, HR increased 2 +/- 1 beats/min (P < 0.01). These results demonstrate that sympathetic activation during HDR in the prone posture is similar in men and women. Therefore, these findings suggest that the vestibulosympathetic reflex is not different between healthy men and women.     

Relationship of push-ups and sit-ups tests to selected anthropometric variables and performance results: a multiple regression study

The purpose of this study was to explore whether selected anthropometric measures such as specific skinfold sites, along with weight, height, body mass index (BMI), waist and hip circumferences, and waist/hip ratio (WHR) were associated with sit-ups (SU) and push-ups (PU) performance, and to build a regression model for SU and PU tests. One hundred apparently healthy adults (40 men and 60 women) served as the subjects for test validation. The subjects performed 60-second SU and PU tests. The variables analyzed via multiple regression included weight, height, BMI, hip and waist circumferences, WHR, skinfolds at the abdomen (SFAB), thigh (SFTH), and subscapularis (SFSS), and sex. An additional cohort of 40 subjects (17 men and 23 women) was used to cross-validate the regression models. Validity was confirmed by correlation and paired t-tests. The regression analysis yielded a four-variable (PU, height, SFAB, and SFTH) multiple regression equation for estimating SU (R2 = 0.64, SEE = 7.5 repetitions). For PU, only SU was loaded into the regression equation (R2 = 0.43, SEE = 9.4 repetitions). Thus, the variables in the regression models accounted for 64% and 43% of the variation in SU and PU, respectively. The cross-validation sample elicited a high correlation for SU (r = 0.87) and PU (r = 0.79) scores. Moreover, paired-samples t-tests revealed that there were no significant differences between actual and predicted SU and PU scores. Therefore, this study shows that there are a number of selected, health-related anthropometric variables that account significantly for, and are predictive of, SU and PU tests.     

Gender differences in the levels of bisphenol A metabolites in urine

The metabolism of bisphenol A (BPA), a suspected endocrine disruptor, should be considered for monitoring human exposure to BPA, because the conjugation with beta-D-glucuronide and sulfate reduces the estrogenic activity. In this study, BPA levels in 30 healthy Koreans (men, N=15, 42.6+/-2.4 years; women, N=15, 43.0+/-2.7 years) were analyzed from urine treated with/without beta-glucuronidase and/or sulfatase by an RP-HPLC with fluorescence detection. The total BPA concentrations including free BPA and the urinary conjugates were similar in men and women (2.82+/-0.73 and 2.76+/-0.54 ng ml(-1), respectively), but gender differences were found in the levels of urinary BPA conjugates. Men had significantly higher levels of BPA-glucuronide (2.34+/-0.85 ng ml(-1)) than women (1.00+/-0.34 ng ml(-1)), whereas women had higher levels of BPA-sulfate (1.20+/-0.32 ng ml(-1)) than men (0.49+/-0.27 ng ml(-1)).     

Plasma tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels and insulin resistance in nondiabetic hypertensive subjects

OBJECTIVES: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) is associated with insulin resistance in certain conditions. However, whether TNF-alpha is related to insulin resistance in hypertensive subjects is still controversial. The aim of this study was to determine the status of TNF-alpha and insulin resistance in hypertension. METHODS: Newly diagnosed nondiabetic 17 essentially hypertensive (6 men, 11 women) patients, and 11 control healthy subjects (5 men, 6 women) are involved in the study. Body mass index (BMI), insulin, fasting blood glucose, cholesterol, triglyceride, and TNF-alpha levels were measured. Insulin resistance is assessed according to homeostasis model of assessment (HOMA-IR). RESULTS: Serum insulin (8.4 +/- 2.7 vs. 6.1 +/- 1.4 mIU/ml; p < 0.01), triglyceride (245.0 +/- 39.9 vs. 193.0 +/- 22.8 mg/dl; p < 0.01), and TNF-alpha (4.2 +/- 0.7 vs. 3.0 +/- 0.6 pg/ml; p < 0.001) levels, and HOMA-IR (2.0 +/- 0.8 vs. 1.3 +/- 0.3; p < 0.001) were significantly higher in the hypertensive patients compared to the normotensive control group. There were positive correlations between TNF-alpha levels and body mass index (r = 0.64, p < 0.01), and triglyceride (r = 0.55 p = 0.02) levels in the whole study group. However, there was no correlation of either TNF-alpha or HOMA-IR. CONCLUSIONS: Our data revealed that hypertensive patients have insulin resistance and higher TNF-alpha levels, but there is no relation between TNF-alpha levels and insulin resistance.     

Physical capacity and functional abilities improve in young adults with intellectual disabilities after functional training

Individuals with an intellectual disability (ID) have higher rates of obesity, lower rates of physical activity, cardiorespiratory fitness, and muscular endurance than do typically developed individuals (TDI) and are twice as likely to develop chronic disease, living half as long as TDIs do. The purpose of this study was to examine the improvements in physical capacity and functional ability in Special Olympic Athletes (SOAs) aged 19-22 years after participating in a functional training (FT) program and compare these scores with those of the SOAs in a resistance weight training (WT) program. Twenty SOAs (13 men, 7 women with mild to moderate ID) participated in a 1-hour FT program, twice a week, for 10 weeks, compared with 22 same-aged SOAs (14 men, 8 women) participating in a 1-hour WT program (2× week for 8 weeks). Prefitness and postfitness tests consisting of heart rate (HR) for the 3-minute step test, static plank, body weight squats, static bar hang, and knee push-ups were conducted. Two-tailed, paired sample t-tests (p < 0.05) were used to evaluate the differences in the FT group. Change scores were used to compare FTG with the WT group. The HR decreased by 31.8 b·min?1 pre-post in the FTG (p < 0.001). Static plank duration improved by 22.4 seconds in the FTG (p = 0.016); static plank change scores improved (p = 0.037) for the FTG (26.5 ± 32.1 seconds compared with that for the WT group (4.6 ± 22 seconds). Height and weight values were unchanged in both the groups. The results of this study demonstrate the value of FT programs for this population, because weight equipment is not always available in many settings.     

Influence of endurance exercise training status and gender on postexercise hypotension.

In sedentary individuals, postexercise hypotension after a single bout of aerobic exercise is due to a peripheral vasodilation. Endurance exercise training has the potential to modify this response and perhaps reduce the degree of postexercise hypotension. We tested the hypothesis that endurance exercise-trained men and women would have blunted postexercise hypotension compared with sedentary subjects but that the mechanism of hypotension would be similar (i.e., vasodilation). We studied 16 endurance-trained and 16 sedentary men and women. Arterial pressure, cardiac output, and total peripheral resistance were determined before and after a single 60-min bout of exercise at 60% peak oxygen consumption. All groups exhibited a similar degree of postexercise hypotension (approximately 4-5 mmHg; P < 0.05 vs. preexercise). In sedentary men and women, hypotension was the result of vasodilation (Deltaresistance: -8.9 +/- 2.2%). In endurance-trained women, hypotension was also the result of vasodilation (-8.1 +/- 4.1%). However, in endurance-trained men, hypotension was the result of a reduced cardiac output (-5.2 +/- 2.4%; P < 0.05 vs. all others) and vasodilation was absent (-0.7 +/- 3.3%; P < 0.05 vs. all others). Thus we conclude the magnitude of postexercise hypotension is similar in sedentary and endurance-trained men and women but that endurance-trained men and women achieve this fall in pressure via different mechanisms.