稻田甲烷排放模型研究——模型的验证

模型的有效性检验是模型应用于估计区域尺度稻田甲烷排放量的基本前提 ,尤其是针对多种不同的土壤、气候以及农业管理方式等可能影响稻田甲烷排放的环境条件下的模型检验。利用覆盖全国主要水稻产区的 94个甲烷排放观测案例对稻田甲烷排放模型 (CH4 MOD)进行了验证。这些观测区域分布范围北至北京 (4 0°30′N,116°2 5′E) ,南至广州 (2 3°0 8′N,113°2 0′E) ,东起杭州 (30°19′N,12 0°12′E) ,西到四川的土主 (2 9°4 0′N,10 3°5 0′E)。既有双季稻 ,也有单季稻 ,稻田灌溉及施肥方式也多种多样 ,对我国水稻生产具有较广泛的代表性。观测获得的稻田甲烷排放季节总量从 3.1kg C/hm2到 76 1.7kg C/hm2 ,平均值为199.4 (± 187.3) kg C/hm2 ;相应的模拟值分别为 13.9、82 4 .3和 2 2 4 .6 (± 187.0 ) kg C/hm2。模拟值与实测值的线性相关系数(r2 )为 0 .84 (n=94 ,p<0 .0 0 1)。CH4 MOD模型能够通过较少的输入参数有效地模拟我国主要农作方式下的稻田甲烷排放     

Processes involved in formation and emission of methane in rice paddies

The seasonal change of the rates of production and emission of methane were determined under in-situ conditions in an Italian rice paddy in 1985 and 1986. The contribution to total emission of CH₄ of plant-mediated transport, ebullition, and diffusion through the flooding water was quantified by cutting the plants and by trapping emerging gas bubbles with funnels. Both production and emission of CH₄ increased during the season and reached a maximum in August. However, the numbers of methanogenic bacteria did not change. As the rice plants grew and the contribution of plant-mediated CH₄ emission increased, the percentage of the produced CH₄ which was reoxidized and thus, was not emitted, also increased. At its maximum, about 300 ml CH₄ were produced per m² per hour. However, only about 6% were emitted and this was by about 96% via plant-mediated transport. Radiotracer experiments showed that CH, was produced from H₂/CO₂. (30–50%) and from acetate. The pool concentration of acetate was in the range of 6–10 mM. The turnover time of acetate was 12–16 h. Part of the acetate pool appeared to be not available for production of CH₄ or CO₂     

稻田甲烷排放模型研究——模型及其修正

在过去十多年内 ,关于稻田甲烷排放的模拟已经进行了不少有益的探索并且开发出了数个有关的模型。模型的成功研制是准确定量估计不同区域范围内稻田甲烷排放的前提。以往大部分模型由于模拟精度不高 ,或者是其要求太多的输入参数 ,因而限制了它在大尺度范围内的广泛应用。在一个比较成熟的模型基础上 ,进行了必要的修正与扩充。增加了稻田甲烷通过气泡方式排放的模拟模块 ,并修正了原模型中关于土壤氧化还原电位变化的模拟 ,使之能适应于多种稻田水管理方式。新修正的模型 (CH4 MOD)不仅保留了原模型输入参数较少和易于获得的优点 ,而且能适应多种水稻耕作方式 ,这为进一步利用模型技术准确估计大尺度区域稻田甲烷排放提供了一种新的科学方法     

A mechanistic model on methane oxidation in a rice rhizosphere

A mechanistic model is presented onthe processes leading to methane oxidation inrice rhizosphere. The model is driven byoxygen release from a rice root into anaerobicrice soil. Oxygen is consumed by heterotrophicand methanotrophic respiration, described bydouble Monod kinetics, and by iron oxidation,described by a second order reaction.Substrates for these reactions – ferrous iron,acetate and methane – are produced by anexponential time dependent organic mattermineralisation in combination with modifiedMichaelis Menten kinetics for competition foracetate and hydrogen. Compounds diffusebetween rhizosphere, root and atmosphere. Adiffusion resistance between the rice root andshoot is included. Active transport across theroot surface occurs for root exudation andplant nutrient uptake. Iron adsorption isdescribed dependent on pH. The model predictswell root oxygen release, compound gradientsand compound concentrations in a ricerhizosphere. Methane oxidation estimates arecomparable to experimental estimates. Asensitivity analysis showed however thatmethane oxidation is highly dependent on modelinitialisation and parameterisation, which ishighly dependent on the history of therhizosphere and root growth dynamics.Equilibrium is not obtained within the periodthat a single root influences a soil micrositeand results in a large change in methanestorage. Equilibrium is moreover dependentupon the diffusion resistance across the rootsurface. These factors make methane oxidationdynamics highly variable in space and time anddependent on root dynamics. The increasedunderstanding of methane oxidation does notdirectly lead to increased predictiveabilities, given this high variability and theuncertainties involved in rhizospheredynamics.     

Higher yields and lower methane emissions with new rice cultivars

Breeding high‐yielding rice cultivars through increasing biomass is a key strategy to meet rising global food demands. Yet, increasing rice growth can stimulate methane (CH₄) emissions, exacerbating global climate change, as rice cultivation is a major source of this powerful greenhouse gas. Here, we show in a series of experiments that high‐yielding rice cultivars actually reduce CH₄ emissions from typical paddy soils. Averaged across 33 rice cultivars, a biomass increase of 10% resulted in a 10.3% decrease in CH₄ emissions in a soil with a high carbon (C) content. Compared to a low‐yielding cultivar, a high‐yielding cultivar significantly increased root porosity and the abundance of methane‐consuming microorganisms, suggesting that the larger and more porous root systems of high‐yielding cultivars facilitated CH₄ oxidation by promoting O₂ transport to soils. Our results were further supported by a meta‐analysis, showing that high‐yielding rice cultivars strongly decrease CH₄ emissions from paddy soils with high organic C contents. Based on our results, increasing rice biomass by 10% could reduce annual CH₄ emissions from Chinese rice agriculture by 7.1%. Our findings suggest that modern rice breeding strategies for high‐yielding cultivars can substantially mitigate paddy CH₄ emission in China and other rice growing regions.     

Seasonal variation in methane flux from rice paddies associated with methane concentration in soil water,rice biomass and temperature,and its modelling

To attempt to develop physicochemical and physiological modelling for methane transport from the rhizosphere to the atmosphere through rice plants, methane flux, methane concentration in the soil water, and the biomass of rice were measured in lysimeter rice paddies (2.5 × 4 m, depth 2.0 m) once per week throughout the entire growing season in 1992 at Tsukuba, Japan. The addition of exogenous organic matter (rice straw) or soil amendments with the presence or absence of vegetation were also examined for their influence on methane emissions. The total methane emission over the growing season varied from 3.2 g CH₄ m^-2 y^-1 without the addition of rice straw to 49.7 g CH₄ m^-2 y^-1 with rice straw and microbiological amendment. In the unvegetated plot with the addition of rice straw, there was much ebullition of gas bubbles, particularly in the summer. The annual methane emission due to the ebullition of gas bubbles,from the unvegetated plot with the addition of rice straw was estimated to be almost the same as that from the vegetated site with the addition of rice straw. In the early growth stage, the methane flux can be analyzed by the diffusion model (Flux=Methane concentration × Conductance of rice body) using parameters for methane concentration in the soil water as a difference in concentration between the atmosphere and the rhizosphere, and for the biomass of rice as a conductance of rice body. On the other hand, although the diffusion model was inapplicable to a large extent from the middle to late growth stage, methane flux could be estimated by air temperature and concentration in the soil water. Thus, methane transport from the rhizosphere to the atmosphere through rice plants consisted of two phases: one was an explainable small part by diffusion in rice body; the other was a large part strongly, governed by air temperature. The existence of gas bubbles in the soil may be related to the transition between the two phases     

Thermophilic anaerobic oxidation of methane by marine microbial consortia

The anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) with sulfate controls the emission of the greenhouse gas methane from the ocean floor. AOM is performed by microbial consortia of archaea (ANME) associated with partners related to sulfate-reducing bacteria. In vitro enrichments of AOM were so far only successful at temperatures ⩽25 °C; however, energy gain for growth by AOM with sulfate is in principle also possible at higher temperatures. Sequences of 16S rRNA genes and core lipids characteristic for ANME as well as hints of in situ AOM activity were indeed reported for geothermally heated marine environments, yet no direct evidence for thermophilic growth of marine ANME consortia was obtained to date. To study possible thermophilic AOM, we investigated hydrothermally influenced sediment from the Guaymas Basin. In vitro incubations showed activity of sulfate-dependent methane oxidation between 5 and 70 °C with an apparent optimum between 45 and 60 °C. AOM was absent at temperatures ⩾75 °C. Long-term enrichment of AOM was fastest at 50 °C, yielding a 13-fold increase of methane-dependent sulfate reduction within 250 days, equivalent to an apparent doubling time of 68 days. The enrichments were dominated by novel ANME-1 consortia, mostly associated with bacterial partners of the deltaproteobacterial HotSeep-1 cluster, a deeply branching phylogenetic group previously found in a butane-amended 60 °C-enrichment culture of Guaymas sediments. The closest relatives (Desulfurella spp.; Hippea maritima) are moderately thermophilic sulfur reducers. Results indicate that AOM and ANME archaea could be of biogeochemical relevance not only in cold to moderate but also in hot marine habitats.     

基于模型和GIS技术的中国稻田甲烷排放估计

将一个比较成熟的稻田甲烷排放模型CH4MOD和GIS空间化数据库结合,模拟估计了中国大陆2000年水稻生长季稻田甲烷的排放。模型的空间输入参数包括:逐日气温、耕层土壤砂粒含量、外源有机质施用量、稻田水分管理模式、水稻移栽期与收获期、水稻种植面积与单产,空间分辨率为10km×10km。模拟结果表明:2000年稻田甲烷排放量为6.02Tg,其中:早稻生长季排放1.63Tg、晚稻1.46Tg、单季稻2.93Tg。提高区域稻田甲烷排放估计精度的进一步目标应放在减小输入参数误差和提高空间数据精度上,在现有数据库基础和模型———GIS技术下探讨我国稻田甲烷排放估计的不确定性范围是必要的。     

Production of aromatic compounds during methanogenic degradation of straw in rice field soil

Production of CH(4) in anoxic rice field soil is stimulated by the addition of rice straw. Previous experiments showed that acetate and propionate are the most important intermediates of the carbon flow to CH(4), and accumulate if CH(4) production is inhibited by 2-bromoethanesulfonate (BES). However, some unidentified compounds were found to accumulate in addition. We now identified them as benzoate, phenylpropionate, and phenylacetate by comparison of the retention times in HPLC chromatograms with authentic standards and by mass spectrometry. These aromatic compounds accumulated only to concentrations <100 microM, especially in soil amended with rice straw (stem, sheath or blade straw). Phenylpropionate and benzoate were the most abundant aromatic intermediates contributing up to 4% to total CH(4) production. Phenylacetate, on the other hand, contributed very little (<0.3%). Gibbs free energies (DeltaG) were calculated for different anaerobic degradation pathways of the aromatic compounds at the actual incubation conditions. Conversion of benzoate to acetate, CO(2) and H(2) was strongly exergonic (DeltaG = -86 kJ mol(-1)) under methanogenic conditions, but became less exergonic (DeltaG = -30 kJ mol(-1)) when CH(4) production was inhibited. The primary oxidation of phenylpropionate was only exergonic for alpha-oxidation (i.e. phenylacetate as product) but not for beta-oxidation (i.e. benzoate as product). However, the DeltaG values for the complete degradation of phenylpropionate to acetate, CO(2) and H(2) were similar for both pathways and were also similar to those of benzoate degradation. Collectively, the results suggest that aromatic compounds are minor intermediates of anaerobic degradation of organic matter in rice field soil, and are syntrophically degraded by coupling to methanogenesis.     

Contribution of methanol to the production of methane and its <Superscript>13</Superscript>C-isotopic signature in anoxic rice field soil

Conversion of methanol to CH₄ has a large isotope effect so that a small contribution of methanol-dependent CH₄ production may decrease the ¹³CH₄ of total CH₄ production. Therefore, we investigated the role of methanol for CH₄ production. Methanol was not detectable above 10 M in anoxic methanogenic rice field soil. Nevertheless, addition of ¹³C-labeled methanol (99% enriched) resulted in immediate accumulation of ¹³CH₄. Addition of 0.1 M ¹³C-methanol resulted in increase of the ¹³CH₄ from –47 to –6 within 2 h, followed by a slow decrease. Addition of 1 M ¹³C-methanol increased ¹³CH₄ to +500 within 4 h, whereas 10 M increased ¹³CH₄ to +2500 and continued to increase. These results indicate that the methanol concentrations in situ, which diluted the ¹³C-methanol added, were 0.1 M and that the turnover of methanol contributed only about 2% to total CH₄ production at 0.1 M. However, contribution increased up to 5 and 17% when 1 and 10 M methanol were added, respectively. Anoxic rice soil that was incubated at different temperatures between 10 and 37 °C exhibited maximally 2–6% methanol-dependent methanogenesis about 1–2 h after addition of 1 M ¹³C-methanol. Only at 50 °C, contribution of methanol to CH₄ production reached a maximum of 10%. After longer (7–10 h) incubation, however, contribution generally was only 2–4%. Methanol accumulated in the soil when CH₄ production was inhibited by chloroform. However, the accumulated methanol accounted for only up to 0.7 and 1.2% of total CH₄ production at 37 and 50 °C, respectively. Collectively, our results show that methanol-dependent methanogenesis was operating in anoxic rice field soil but contributed only marginally to total CH₄ production and the isotope effect observed at both low and high temperature.     

添加氧化铁对水稻土中H2、CO2和CH4形成的影响

水稻土是甲烷产生的重要源地.厌氧条件下甲烷的形成与有机质厌氧降解产生的乙酸、H₂和CO₂有关.氧化铁作为电子受体可有效地竞争有机质向甲烷的转化,其抑制作用机理可能与乙酸、H₂和CO₂的有效消耗有关.通过向水稻土泥浆中添加无定形氧化铁和纤铁矿,分别测定了25℃厌氧恒温培养105d过程中的H₂、CO₂和CH₄的浓度变化.结果表明,添加无定形氧化铁及纤铁矿可导致H₂浓度显著降低;无定形氧化铁对H₂消耗的影响明显大于纤铁矿;添加不同氧化铁对CO₂浓度的影响与H₂浓度的变化有相同的趋势;添加氧化铁能显著抑制水稻土中甲烷形成,并导致有机碳的转移发生变化,使得CH₄-C显著降低,气相中CO₂-C量减少,而由土壤泥浆固定的CO₃^2--C量显著增加.     

Microbiology of flooded rice paddies

Flooded rice paddies are one of the major biogenic sources of atmospheric methane. Apart from this contribution to the 'greenhouse' effect, rice paddy soil represents a suitable model system to study fundamental aspects of microbial ecology, such as diversity, structure, and dynamics of microbial communities as well as structure-function relationships between microbial groups. Flooded rice paddy soil can be considered as a system with three compartments (oxic surface soil, anoxic bulk soil, and rhizosphere) characterized by different physio-chemical conditions. After flooding, oxygen is rapidly depleted in the bulk soil. Anaerobic microorganisms, such as fermentative bacteria and methanogenic archaea, predominate within the microbial community, and thus methane is the final product of anaerobic degradation of organic matter. In the surface soil and the rhizosphere well-defined microscale chemical gradients can be measured. The oxygen profile seems to govern gradients of other electron acceptors (e.g., nitrate, iron(III), and sulfate) and reduced compounds (e.g., ammonium, iron(II), and sulfide). These gradients provide information about the activity and spatial distribution of functional groups of microorganisms. This review presents the current knowledge about the highly complex microbiology of flooded rice paddies. In Section 2 we describe the predominant microbial groups and their function with particular regard to bacterial populations utilizing polysaccharides and simple sugars, and to the methanogenic archaea. Section 3 describes the spatial and temporal development of microscale chemical gradients measured in experimentally defined model systems, including gradients of oxygen and dissolved and solid-phase iron(III) and iron(II). In Section 4, the results of measurements of microscale gradients of oxygen, pH, nitrate-nitrite, and methane in natural rice fields and natural rice soil cores taken to the laboratory will be presented. Finally, perspectives of future research are discussed (Section 5).     

添加氧化铁对水稻土中H2、CO2和CH4形成的影响

水稻土是甲烷产生的重要源地．厌氧条件下甲烷的形成与有机质厌氧降解产生的乙酸、H2和CO2有关．氧化铁作为电子受体可有效地竞争有机质向甲烷的转化,其抑制作用机理可能与乙酸、H2和CO2的有效消耗有关．通过向水稻土泥浆中添加无定形氧化铁和纤铁矿．分别测定了25℃厌氧恒温培养105d过程中的H2、CO2和CH4的浓度变化．结果表明,添加无定形氧化铁及纤铁矿可导致H2浓度显著降低;无定形氧化铁对H2消耗的影响明显大于纤铁矿;添加不同氧化铁对CO2浓度的影响与H2浓度的变化有相同的趋势;添加氧化铁能显著抑制水稻土中甲烷形成,并导致有机碳的转移发生变化,使得CH4—C显著降低,气相中CO2—C量减少,而由土壤泥浆固定的CO3^2-—C量显著增加．     

Microbial mechanism for rice variety control on methane emission from rice field soil

Rice variety is one of the key factors regulating methane (CH₄) production and emission from the paddy fields. However, the relationships between rice varieties and populations of microorganisms involved in CH₄ dynamics are poorly understood. Here we investigated CH₄ dynamics and the composition and abundance of CH₄‐producing archaea and CH₄‐oxidizing bacteria in a Chinese rice field soil planted with three types of rice. Hybrid rice produced 50–60% more of shoot biomass than Indica and Japonica cultivars. However, the emission rate of CH₄ was similar to Japonica and lower than Indica. Furthermore, the dissolved CH₄ concentration in the rhizosphere of hybrid rice was markedly lower than Indica and Japonica cultivars. The rhizosphere soil of hybrid rice showed a similar CH₄ production potential but a higher CH₄ oxidation potential compared with the conventional varieties. Terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of the archaeal 16S rRNA genes showed that the hydrogenotrophic methanogens dominated in the rhizosphere whereas acetoclastic methanogens mainly inhabited the bulk soil. The abundance of total archaea as determined by quantitative (real‐time) PCR increased in the later stage of rice growth. However, rice variety did not significantly influence the structure and abundance of methanogenic archaea. The analysis of pmoA gene fragments (encoding the α‐subunit of particulate methane monooxygenase) revealed that rice variety also did not influence the structure of methanotrophic proteobacteria, though variable effects of soil layer and sampling time were observed. However, the total copy number of pmoA genes in the rhizosphere of hybrid rice was approximately one order of magnitude greater than the two conventional cultivars. The results suggest that hybrid rice stimulates the growth of methanotrophs in the rice rhizosphere, and hence enhances CH₄ oxidation which attenuates CH₄ emissions from the paddy soil. Hybrid rice is becoming more and more popular in Asian countries. The present study demonstrated that planting of hybrid rice will not enhance CH₄ emissions albeit a higher grain production than the conventional varieties.     

Role of rice in mediating methane emission

Methane emitted at different plant conditions through the different organs of rice plants was studied using a closed chamber technique under the laboratory, phytotron, and greenhouse conditions in order to clarify and quantify the role of different organs of rice plant as methane emission sites. Rice plants grown in flooded soils emit methane to the atmosphere via the aerenchyma of leaves, nodes and panicles. Emission through the rice plants is controlled by diffusion. No methane is emitted via the transpiration stream. Leaves are the major release sites at the early growth stage while nodes become more important later. Cracks and porous structure were found in the nodes. Panicles generally contribute little to methane emission. Increasing water depth temporarily reduces methane emission while concentration gradients in rice plants readjust to unsubmerged emission sites. Methane emissions in rice plants cease only when the plants become totally submerged.     

植物在CH4产生、氧化和排放中的作用

综合评述了植物对CH4产生、内源CH4氧化和CH4排放的影响．不同植物释放根系分泌物能力的不同是造成CH4产生量差异的主要原因。而植物不同生育期分泌分泌物能力的差异是造成季节性变化的关键．植物泌O2能力的高低和季节性变化通过影响内源CH4的氧化来改变CH4的排放数量．植物问通气组织数量和密度的差异及其随生育期的变化,通过影响对CH4的传输能力来改变CH4的排放量．因此,植物排放CH4的通量及其季节性变化规律是由植物根系分泌分泌物能力、分泌O2能力和传输CH4能力综合决定的．     

A synthesis of methane emissions from shallow vegetated coastal ecosystems

Vegetated coastal ecosystems (VCEs; i.e., mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrasses) play a critical role in global carbon (C) cycling, storing 10× more C than temperate forests. Methane (CH₄), a potent greenhouse gas, can form in the sediments of these ecosystems. Currently, CH₄ emissions are a missing component of VCE C budgets. This review summarizes 97 studies describing CH₄ fluxes from mangrove, salt marsh, and seagrass ecosystems and discusses factors controlling CH₄ flux in these systems. CH₄ fluxes from these ecosystems were highly variable yet they all act as net methane sources (median, range; mangrove: 279.17, ?67.33 to 72,867.83; salt marsh: 224.44, ?92.60 to 94,129.68; seagrass: 64.80, 1.25–401.50 µmol CH₄ m^?2 day^?1). Together CH₄ emissions from mangrove, salt marsh, and seagrass ecosystems are about 0.33–0.39 Tmol CH₄‐C/year—an addition that increases the current global marine CH₄ budget by more than 60%. The majority (~45%) of this increase is driven by mangrove CH₄ fluxes. While organic matter content and quality were commonly reported in individual studies as the most important environmental factors driving CH₄ flux, they were not significant predictors of CH₄ flux when data were combined across studies. Salinity was negatively correlated with CH₄ emissions from salt marshes, but not seagrasses and mangroves. Thus the available data suggest that other environmental drivers are important for predicting CH₄ emissions in vegetated coastal systems. Finally, we examine stressor effects on CH₄ emissions from VCEs and we hypothesize that future changes in temperature and other anthropogenic activites (e.g., nitrogen loading) will likely increase CH₄ emissions from these ecosystems. Overall, this review highlights the current and growing importance of VCEs in the global marine CH₄ budget.