Morphology of the female reproductive organs of the African lion (Panthera leo)

The topography and splanchnology of the reproductive organs of the African lioness were studied and described in situ and after removal. The kidneys were located far caudally in relation to the thirteenth ribs. The suspensory ligament was very well developed, originated in a fan‐like manner from the dorsolateral abdominal wall lateral to the kidney and extended up to a few centimetres cranial to the kidney. The proper ligament of the ovary as well as the round ligament was well developed. The round ligament inserted on the medial femoral fascia. The left ovary was bigger than the right. The ovarian bursa had a short mesosalpinx that did not cover any part of the ovary and the fimbriae extended along the entire length. The urethral tuberculum as well as the urethral crest were well developed. The left uterine horn was longer than the right. The uterine tube was found to open directly into the tip of the uterine horn and not onto a papilla. The reproductive organs of the lioness resembled those of the domestic cat and dog but with some major differences.     

Threat of rapid extermination of the lion (Panthera leo leo) in Waza National Park,Northern Cameroon

Lion populations in West and Central Africa are small and fragmented. In areas where park management is weak, threats will likely facilitate the extinction of the lion. Wildlife management requires knowledge of the population estimate. The population of lions in Waza National Park (Waza NP) was assessed by individual identification of members in the population. The population was assessed to comprise of 14–21 adult individual lions. The age structure was skewed towards adults; cubs comprised 22% of all lions identified while the sex ratio was 1 : 3. Two out of four collared lions were lost to illegal, retaliatory killings within 1 year; and probably two more males and one more female were also killed during this period. The lion population appears to have declined during the last 5 years with six lions dying per year, which is at a much higher rate than observed in the previous decades. Human‐livestock pressure has increased tremendously in this period, resulting to frequent human‐lion conflicts. To ensure the survival of the lion in Waza NP and in the entire region, management needs to intensify efforts to mitigate the pressure from humans and their livestock.     

Ecological drivers of female lion (Panthera leo) reproduction in the Kruger National Park

The role of social cues in the reproduction of social mammals, particularly carnivores, has been thoroughly studied and documented in literature. However, environmental cues such as resources of water, food, and shelter have been identified to a lesser extent. Pregnant lions (Panthera leo) are notoriously secretive during the final stages of pregnancy and postpartum. Behavioral indicators depicted by movement patterns obtained by remote detection of collared female lions in the Kruger National Park were necessary for the monitoring of birth timing. Over the study period, eight plus a potential three parturition incidences of collared females were recorded. Of the variables measured (step length, range size, duration, prey biomass, and rainfall), range size during the month of parturition was the most indicative movement pattern of a successful birth. By backdating the potential birth month of the litters, date of conception was calculated and our results revealed a correlation between the birthing peaks of preferred prey during the month of conception. Birth timing in conjunction with remote sensing and ecological factors were thus identified behaviors associated with denning.     

Twenty polymorphic microsatellite markers in the Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica)

The Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica) is driven to a single habitat in Gir forests in India for its survival. In order to devise adequate conservation and management strategies for this critically endangered species, it is important to characterize its genetic diversity and understand its population structure. Here we report twenty microsatellite loci, in addition to seven reported earlier, from the genome of a pure Asiatic lion. The microsatellite loci described here will provide potentially useful markers for the assessment of genetic variability in the only existing wild population of the Asiatic lions and other big cat species.     

Development and characterization of novel microsatellite markers in the Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica)

All cat species, except domestic cats, are either threatened or endangered. The Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica), a critically endangered species, is driven to a single habitat zone in Gir forests in India for its survival. The present status of this big cat compels us to acquire deeper knowledge of its genetic variability and phylogenetic relationships. Here we report the isolation of highly polymorphic microsatellite loci from a partial genomic library of the Asiatic lion. These loci were characterized and have shown high levels of variation ranging from six to 11 alleles per locus in the population studied.     

A molecular analysis of African lion (Panthera leo) mating structure and extra‐group paternity in Etosha National Park

The recent incorporation of molecular methods into analyses of social and mating systems has provided evidence that mating patterns often differ from those predicted by group social organization. Based on field studies and paternity analyses at a limited number of sites, African lions are predicted to exhibit a strict within‐pride mating system. Extra‐group paternity has not been previously reported in African lions; however, observations of extra‐group associations among lions inhabiting Etosha National Park in Namibia suggest deviation from the predicted within‐pride mating pattern. We analysed variation in 14 microsatellite loci in a population of 164 African lions in Etosha National Park. Genetic analysis was coupled with demographic and observational data to examine pride structure, relatedness and extra‐group paternity (EGP). EGP was found to occur in 57% of prides where paternity was analysed (n = 7), and the overall rate of EGP in this population was 41% (n = 34). Group sex ratio had a significant effect on the occurrence of EGP (P < 0.05), indicating that variation in pride‐level social structure may explain intergroup variation in EGP. Prides with a lower male‐to‐female ratio were significantly more likely to experience EGP in this population. The results of this study challenge the current models of African lion mating systems and provide evidence that social structure may not reflect breeding structure in some social mammals.     

Spontaneous and induced ovulation in the lion (Panthera leo)

The objective of this study was to clarify if ovulation occurs spontaneously, if it is copulation-induced, or if a combination of both mechanisms controls ovulation in African lions. Five female lions were either permitted unrestricted copulatory activity with vasectomized males throughout estrus or were physically isolated from conspecifies for the duration of estrus. Each female was randomly exposed to each treatment in a switchback design during consecutive estrous cycles. Serum concentrations of progesterone were determined in blood samples collected on days 2, 8, 12, and 16 following the onset of estrus (day 0). Ovulation was indirectly confirmed by elevated serum concentrations of progesterone on days 8, 12, and 16. While ovulation occurred spontaneously in one of five isolated lions, five of five of the same lions ovulated following copulation (P ≤ 0.05). Following mating, concentrations of progesterone increased six- to twelve fold (up to > 109 ng/ml) between days 2 and 12, while in the same lions failing to ovulate following isolation, progesterone concentrations did not exceed 11 ng/ml by day 16. Inter-estrous intervals following mating (67 ± 4.4 days) were longer (P ± 0.05) than those following isolation (19 ± 1.0 day). Thus, ovulation in African lions appears to be induced by copulatory stimuli or some other form of physical or social interaction with conspecifies during estrus but can occasionally occur spontaneously. The lion, therefore, does not appear to be a classic spontaneous ovulator but rather a reflex ovulator like the domestic cat. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Applying the resource dispersion hypothesis to a fission–fusion society: A case study of the African lion (Panthera leo)

The relationship between the spatiotemporal distribution of resources and patterns of sociality is widely discussed. While the resource dispersion hypothesis (RDH) was formulated to explain why animals sometimes live in groups from which they derive no obvious benefits, it has also been successfully applied to species that benefit from group living. Some empirical tests have supported the RDH, but others have not, so conclusions remain equivocal and further research is required to determine the extent to which RDH predictions hold in natural systems. Here, we test four predictions of the RDH in an African lion population in the context of their fission–fusion society. We analyzed data on group composition of GPS‐collared lions and patterns of prey availability. Our results supported the first and second predictions of the RDH: Home range size (a) was independent of group size and (b) increased with distance between encounters with prey herds. Nonetheless, the third and fourth RDH predictions were not supported: (c) The measure of resource heterogeneity and (d) resource patch richness measured through prey herd size and body size had no significant effect on lion group size. However, regarding the fourth prediction, we added an adaptation to account for dynamics of fission–fusion society and found that the frequency of pride fission increased as group size increased. Our data set restricted us from going on to explore the effect of fission–fusion dynamics on the relationship between group size and patch richness. However, this should be investigated in future studies as including fission–fusion dynamics provides a more nuanced, realistic appreciation of lion society. Our study emphasizes the importance of understanding the complexity of a species' behavioral ecology within the framework of resource dispersion. Whatever larger theoretical framework may emerge to explain lion society, incorporating fission–fusion dynamics should allow the RDH to be refined and improved.     

Genetic diversity,evolutionary history and implications for conservation of the lion (Panthera leo) in West and Central Africa

Aim In recent decades there has been a marked decline in the numbers of African lions (Panthera leo), especially in West Africa where the species is regionally endangered. Based on the climatological history of western Africa, we hypothesize that West and Central African lions have a unique evolutionary history, which is reflected by their genetic makeup. Location Sub‐Saharan Africa and India, with special focus on West and Central Africa. Method In this study 126 samples, throughout the lion’s complete geographic range, were subjected to phylogenetic analyses. DNA sequences of a mitochondrial region, containing cytochrome b, tRNAPro, tRNAThr and the left part of the control region, were analysed. Results Bayesian, maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony analyses consistently showed a distinction between lions from West and Central Africa and lions from southern and East Africa. West and Central African lions are more closely related to Asiatic lions than to the southern and East African lions. This can be explained by a Pleistocene extinction and subsequent recolonization of West Africa from refugia in the Middle East. This is further supported by the fact that the West and Central African clade shows relatively little genetic diversity and is therefore thought to be an evolutionarily young clade. Main conclusions The taxonomic division between an African and an Asian subspecies does not fully reflect the overall genetic diversity within lions. In order to conserve genetic diversity within the species, genetically distinct lineages should be prioritized. Understanding the geographic pattern of genetic diversity is key to developing conservation strategies, both for in situ management and for breeding of captive stocks.     

Chronological distribution of the tiger Panthera tigris and the Asiatic lion Panthera leo persica in their common range in Asia

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Ultrasonographic and laparoscopic evaluation of the reproductive tract of the captive female African lion (Panthera leo)

The use of transabdominal ultrasonography to assess the oestrous cycle has not been previously described in the African lion (Panthera leo). Twelve sexually mature lionesses and five female cubs had their reproductive organs assessed by transabdominal ultrasound. Ovarian findings were compared to laparoscopic findings while performing laparoscopic ovariectomy or salpingectomy. Vaginal cytology was performed and serum progesterone levels were determined. By combining all data the oestrous cycle stage of each lion was determined. One lion was far pregnant and was not operated on. In adults a uterine body could be seen ultrasonographically in 67% of lions while mural structures could be distinguished in 44% of lions. Five uterine horns could be seen in 3 lions. In 12 adults 10 ovaries were found of which eight had discernable follicles or luteal structures. During laparoscopy 12 active ovaries were seen with luteal structures seen in 11 ovaries and follicles in 2 ovaries. Using laparoscopy as the gold standard, ultrasonography had a sensitivity of 66% and specificity of 83% to detect ovarian reproductive activity. Two uterine cysts and a cluster of periovarian cysts were seen in three different lions. Three lions were pregnant, two were in oestrus, three in a luteal phase (dioestrus), and four were in anoestrus. Transabdominal ultrasound in combination with serum progesterone levels and vaginal cytology can be used to assess ovarian cyclical activity with reasonable accuracy in captive bred lions.     

A man-eating lion (Panthera leo) from Tanzania with a toothache

Between August 2002 and April 2004, a man-eating lion killed 35 people and injured at least 9 in a 350-km² area 150 km south-west of Dar es Salaam in Tanzania. Man-eating by lions is common in Southern Tanzania, but this case was exceptional due to the high number of victims attributed to a single animal. After having been killed by game scouts and villagers, it was found to be a young adult male. Dental examination revealed a broken upper left molar where a serious abscess and caries had developed. The lion must have been in permanent pain, and this probably explains its preference for man-eating. Most man-eating lions in Tanzania are healthy animals without signs of infirmity.     

Room to roam for African lions Panthera leo: a review of the key drivers of lion habitat use and implications for conservation

1. Globally, large terrestrial carnivores (Carnivora) have suffered precipitous declines in population and range. Today, they must persist in increasingly isolated natural habitat patches within a human-dominated matrix. Effective conservation aimed at supporting carnivores in such landscapes requires species-specific understanding of habitat requirements.
2. We present results from a review of the published literature to assess the current state of knowledge regarding habitat preferences of the African lion Panthera leo, with the aim of identifying common drivers of habitat use across contexts.
3. Using the Web of Science, we identified 154 usable articles and extracted information relating to study topic, location, habitats described, land-use type, and any documented habitat preferences.
4. Only 31 studies documented evidence of habitat use, and collectively, they suggested that preferences for specific habitat types were varied and context-specific. The importance of prey abundance and proximity to water was highlighted in multiple studies. Anthropogenic factors interfered with expected patterns of habitat use. There was evident bias in study locations: 83% of the habitat-use studies were based in only three countries, and 70% were focussed on protected or managed areas.
5. Our synthesis suggests that lions demonstrate behavioural plasticity in habitat use in response to anthropogenic pressures. To understand the limits of this plasticity and to manage Africa’s changing landscapes effectively for roaming lions, future research should be focussed on analysis of habitat use outside protected areas, taking into account gradients of distance to water, prey abundance, and anthropogenic risk.

     

Contraception, reproduction and demography of free-ranging Etosha lions (Panthera leo)

The use of long-acting contraceptives as an effective population control mechanism for free-ranging lions was investigated during a three-year study in the Etosha National Park on five lion prides. Lions were immobilized with ketamine hydrochloride and xylazine hydrochloride. Following immobilization, lionesses were weighed, measured and aged, while serum steroid hormone levels were analysed and vaginal smears were obtained. Physical condition and sexual state were assessed. Individuals were used as control animals or given melengestrol acetate (contraceptive) implants, branded and released; the animals were observed for possible changes in behaviour, birth rate and mortality. Ten treated lionesses were recaptured at irregular intervals to reassess weight and steroid hormone levels, while three lionesses had their implants removed to determine if their fertility would return. The contraceptives prevented pregnancy, were reversible when removed and did not alter lion behaviour significantly, except that sexual behaviour was not recorded in treated lionesses.     

Lost populations and preserving genetic diversity in the lion Panthera leo: Implications for its ex situ conservation

Two of the eight recognized lion subspecies, North African Barbary lion (Panthera leo leo) and South African Cape lion (Panthera leo melanochaita), have become extinct in the wild in the last 150 years. Based on sequences of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region (HVR1) extracted from museum specimens of four Barbary and one Cape lion, the former was probably a distinct population characterized by an invariable, unique mtDNA haplotype, whilst the latter was likely a part of the extant southern African lion population. Extinction of the Barbary line, which may still be found in “generic” zoo lions, would further erode lion genetic diversity. Therefore, appropriate management of such animals is important for maintaining the overall genetic diversity of the species. The mtDNA haplotype unique to the Barbary lion, in combination with the small size of the HVR1 analyzed (c. 130 bp), makes it possible and cost-effective to identify unlabelled Barbary specimens kept in museums and “generic” captive lions that may carry the Barbary line. An initial study of five samples from the lion collection of the King of Morocco, tested using this method, shows that they are not maternally Barbary.