Effect of the post-weaning environment on the climbing behaviour of wild and domestic Norway rats

The climbing behaviour of wild and domestic Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) was compared after early rearing in three post-weaning environments offering different climbing experiences. Wild rats climbed in the test apparatus even when denied early climbing experience; male domestic rats did not. Early climbing experience increased the climbing scores of both stocks but influenced the climbing proficiency of wild rats only. Treatment differences in climbing behaviour may be related to specific motor experiences gained during development and the effect of early experience on the response to a novel environment (test apparatus). Stock differences in climbing behaviour may reflect a general reduction in motor activity among domestic rats and their reduced sensitivity to stimulus change or novelty.     

Postcastration retention of sexual behaviour in the male BDF1 mouse: The role of experience

Male BDF₁ mice (the F₁ progeny of a cross between C57BL/6 females with DBA/2 males) show a remarkable retention of sexual behaviour following castration. Two experiments were conducted to describe in detail the postcastration copulatory performance of the BDF₁ male mouse and to determine to what extent such performance is influenced by experience prior to castration. Experiment I found that castration leads to significant increases in the number of mounts and intromissions needed to reach ejaculation, and to a significant increase in ejaculation latency. Experiment II found that although precastrational sexual experience is not essential for the performance of the ejaculatory reflex after castration, it does influence the frequency of its occurrence. Furthermore, type of postweaning social experience influenced the display of ejaculatory behaviour by non-experienced castrates, as those with female social experience were superior to those with social experience with males or no social experience. The interactions of experience, hormones and genotype in the control of sexual behaviour in the BDF₁ male are discussed.     

The effect of experience on the selective behaviour of song thrushes feeding on artificial populations ofCepaea (held)

Song thrushes fed on populations of bread-stuffedCepaea shells. The results indicate that experience influences the selective behaviour of thrushes for both shell colour and shell size. Such behaviour could lead to frequency dependent selection in natural populations. Within the ranges of size and colour offered, thrushes learned from a colour rather than a size experience when both were varied simultaneously.     

Visual lateralization and development of spatial and social spacing behaviour of chicks (Gallus gallus domesticus)

We investigated whether the development of spatial behaviour of the domestic chicken is influenced by light exposure of the embryo, as is known to be the case for some other lateralized visual functions. Ninety-six chicks were incubated in the dark or exposed to light during the final days of incubation. Half of the chicks in each group had the experience of moving behind opaque screens from 10 to 12 days of age. The other half were given transparent screens as a control. Chicks were tested in a detour test and a rotated floor test and their dispersal in groups was observed in larger pens. In the rotated floor test, chicks that had had experience with opaque screens used distal cues significantly more often than chicks that had experience with transparent screens (P = 0.042), regardless of whether they had been exposed to light before hatching or incubated in the dark. There were no significant differences between treatments in the detour test or in the dispersal behaviour. Hence, visual lateralization has no influence on the development of the spatial behaviour that we tested, whereas the occlusion experience is quite specific and results in shifted attention to distal spatial cues.     

Experience‐ and age‐mediated oviposition behaviour in the yellow fever mosquito Stegomyia aegypti (=Aedes aegypti)

In repeated behaviours such as those of feeding and reproduction, past experiences can inform future behaviour. By altering their behaviour in response to environmental stimuli, insects in highly variable landscapes can tailor their behaviour to their particular environment. In particular, female mosquitoes may benefit from plasticity in their choice of egg‐laying site as these sites are often temporally variable and clustered. The opportunity to adapt egg‐laying behaviour to past experience also exists for mosquito populations as females typically lay eggs multiple times throughout their lives. Whether experience and age affect egg‐laying (or oviposition) behaviour in the mosquito Stegomyia aegypti (=Aedes aegypti) (Diptera: Culicidae) was assessed using a wind tunnel. Initially, gravid mosquitoes were provided with a cup containing either repellent or well water. After ovipositing in these cups, the mosquitoes were blood‐fed and introduced into a wind tunnel. In this wind tunnel, an oviposition cup containing repellent was placed in the immediate vicinity of the gravid mosquitoes. A cup containing well water was placed at the opposite end of the tunnel so that if the females flew across the chamber, they encountered the well water cup, in which they readily laid eggs. Mosquitoes previously exposed to repellent cups became significantly more likely to later lay eggs in repellent cups, suggesting that previous experience with suboptimal oviposition sites informs mosquitoes of the characteristics of nearby oviposition sites. These results provide further evidence that mosquitoes modify behaviour in response to environmental information and are demonstrated in a vector species in which behavioural plasticity may be ecologically and epidemiologically meaningful.     

Sexual Behaviour following Castration in Experienced and Inexperienced Male Rabbits

Sexual activity declines after castration in all mammalian species studied (Beach 1948, Beach and Pauker 1949, Beach 1970, Grunt and Young 1953, Michael and Wilson 1974, Phoenix, Slob and Goy 1973, Rosenblatt and Aronson 1958). The rate of decline of sexual behaviour is generally slower than that of the function of the accessory sexual glands. Two factors have been suggested to contribute to the maintenance of sexual behaviour for some time after castration: secretion of androgen from the adrenal cortex and sexual experience. However, adrenalectomy does not seem to influence post-castrational behaviour in hamsters (Warren and Aronson 1956), dogs (Schwartz and Beach 1954), rats (Bloch and Davidson 1968), mice (Burge and Edwards 1971), and cats (Cooper and Aronson 1958), and the degree of sexual experience appears to be of little importance for the postcastrational behaviour of rats (Bloch and Davidson 1968, Rabedeau and Whalen 1959) and dogs (Hart 1968). But male cats with sexual experience continue to mate after castration for a considerably longer period than inexperienced cats (Rosenblatt and Aronson 1958). Some experienced animals were able to achieve insertion at the 10th week after castration, whereas none of the inexperienced animals did so after the first week. In conclusion, the importance of experience seems to vary between species, whereas the adrenal androgens are of doubtful significance for postcastrational behaviour. We have casually observed that castrated rabbits retain their sexual vigour longer if they are given extensive precastrational experience. The importance of experience has now been studied systematically in animals of mixed strains generally used in the laboratory. As a comparison, we studied the postcastrational behaviour in some New Zealand White rabbits with extensive sexual experience.     

The role of volatiles from cruciferous plants and pre-flight experience in the foraging behaviour of the specialist parasitoid Cotesia plutellae

The braconid Cotesia plutellae is an important larval parasitoid of the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella), a major pest of crucifers in the tropics and sub-tropics. The in-flight searching behaviour of C. plutellae was investigated in a wind tunnel and the close-range attack behaviour observed in cages. The relative importance of volatile stimuli emanating from the plant-host-complex, oilseed rape (Brassica napus) – P. xylostella, in the long-range attraction of C. plutellae was investigated. Plants that were mechanically damaged, or damaged by P. xylostella larvae, were attractive to the parasitoid. Host-damaged leaves remained attractive to the parasitoid after removal of the host larvae. These results indicate that C. plutellae predominantly uses plant derived stimuli in its in-flight searching behaviour. An oviposition experience or contact with a host-damaged leaf prior to the bioassay significantly increased the response to these volatile cues. The foraging behaviour of C. plutellae is compared with other braconid larval parasitoids attacking lepidopteran hosts on crucifers.     

Persistence of Alarm-Call Behaviour in the Absence of Predators: A Comparison Between Wild and Captive-Born Meerkats (Suricata Suricatta)

Performing correct anti‐predator behaviour is crucial for prey to survive. But, are such abilities lost in species or populations living in predator‐free environments? How individuals respond to the loss of predators has been shown to depend on factors such as the degree to which anti‐predator behaviour relies on experience, the type of cues evoking the behaviour, the cost of expressing the behaviour and the number of generations under which relaxed selection has taken place. Here we investigated whether captive‐born populations of meerkats (Suricata suricatta) used the same repertoire of alarm calls previously documented in wild populations and whether captive animals, as wild ones, could recognize potential predators through olfactory cues. We found that all alarm calls that have been documented in the wild also occurred in captivity and were given in broadly similar contexts. Furthermore, without prior experience of odours from predators, captive meerkats seemed to distinguish between faeces of potential predators (carnivores) and non‐predators (herbivores). Despite slight structural differences, the alarm calls given in response to the faeces largely resembled those recorded in similar contexts in the wild. These results from captive populations suggest that direct, physical interaction with predators is not necessary for meerkats to perform correct anti‐predator behaviour in terms of alarm‐call usage and olfactory predator recognition. Such behaviour may have been retained in captivity because relatively little experience seems necessary for correct performance in the wild and/or because of the recency of relaxed selection on these populations.     

Adaptive search in juvenile plaice foraging for aggregated and dispersed prey

Juvenile plaice Pleuronectes platessa in a laboratory arena used intensive search behaviour, characterized by short movements and frequent turning, in the five movements before and after attacking a prey in an aggregated distribution. They used extensive search behaviour with, on average, longer movements and less turning at all other times. Intensive search was, apparently, triggered by a high local density of prey but not by isolated prey. This response to local prey density resulted in area-restricted search when prey were aggregated and win-shift behaviour when prey were dispersed. There was no evidence that the use of intensive search increased with experience of aggregated prey. It therefore appears that the fish were able to exploit encountered prey distribution patterns using their immediate perceptions rather than prior experience.     

The winner and loser effect: integrating multiple experiences

An important question in state-dependent behaviour is how multiple influences on state are integrated to determine current behaviour. Aggressive behaviour is known to be affected by a prior contest experience. Nevertheless, whether and how multiple prior fighting experiences are integrated into a fighting decision remain unexplored. In this study, individuals of Rivulus marmoratus (Cyprinodontidae), a hermaphroditic fish, were given different combinations of two prior fighting experiences to investigate: (1) the effect of penultimate experiences on the probability of winning a subsequent contest; (2) the relative effect of a recent win and loss; and (3) whether the effect of a winning experience was as short lived as observed in other species. Penultimate and recent fighting experiences were given to the test fish approximately 48 and 24 h prior to the dyadic contests, respectively. From the results of the five types of contests staged, we conclude that: (1) penultimate fighting experiences had a significant effect on the probability of winning a subsequent contest; (2) a more recent experience had a more pronounced effect than an earlier experience, which suggested that the effect of a fighting experience would decay and/or the effect of a recent experience would interfere with the effect of an earlier experience; (3) no asymmetric effect between a winning experience and a losing experience was detected; and (4) the effect of both a winning and a losing experience lasted for at least 48 h in R. marmoratus which was the maximum time tested in these experiments. The possible reasons for the differences in results among studies of experience effects on contest outcomes are discussed. Copyright 1999 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.     

Sex roles, parental experience and reproductive success of eastern kingbirds, Tyrannus tyrannus

We quantified parental behaviour of eastern kingbirds during the incubation and nestling periods to determine parental roles, and to examine the impact of previous breeding experience (defined as having bred on the territory in the past) on behaviour and reproductive success. Females performed all incubation, while males spent more than 60% of their time in vigilant or nest guarding behaviour during incubation. Parental roles were not defined as sharply during the nestling period. Females spent more time vigilant, but males provisioned young at only 54% of the rate of females. Vigilance and nest watching were still primarily male duties. Male and female behaviour did not vary with the pair's combination of experience (e.g. experienced-experienced versus inexperienced-inexperienced in previous-current breeding season, respectively) during either phase of reproduction, but experienced males were more vigilant during incubation and fed young relatively more than inexperienced males. Experienced females were also more efficient foragers. Although behaviour did not differ among the four combinations of pair experience, inexperienced pairs none the less lost the most young to starvation and predation. Consequently, inexperienced pairs fledged one less nestling per nesting attempt than did pairs with at least one experienced breeder. Our results suggest that having at least one experienced breeder substantially improved a pair's reproductive success. We propose that female site fidelity is a safeguard to avoid the lower breeding success a female would incur if she were to move to a new territory and breed with an inexperienced male. Copyright 1999 The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour.     

Pre-copulatory behaviour in the male Mongolian gerbil: II. Effects of post-castration sexual and aggressive interactions on responsiveness to androgen

The effects of post-castration interactions with oestrous females on the responsiveness of pre-copulatory patterns to androgens were examined in male Mongolian gerbils. Males that were (EXP group) or were not (NONEXP group) allowed post-castration experience with females were compared. Following castration, male aggressive and female defensive patterns increased significantly in the EXP group; fighting between the pairs also increased. Androgen treatment reduced both fighting and the defensive patterns of test females to pre-castration levels, and induced male pre-copulatory behaviour which was similar to that of the NONEXP group. But restoration of pre-copulatory behaviour in the EXP group to levels shown by the NONEXP group required longer treatment, suggesting that post-castration experience of aggressive interactions decreases the effectiveness of androgen.     

Persistence of Winner and Loser Effects Depends on the Behaviour Measured

Recent contest experience can influence an individual’s behaviour in subsequent contests. When the probability of winning a subsequent contest is used to quantify experience effects, a loser effect usually lasts longer than a winner effect. This conclusion, however, may be caused by this probability understating the persistence of the influence of a winning experience on contest decisions. Using Kryptolebias marmoratus, a mangrove killifish, as the study organism, we investigated whether different conclusions about the relative persistence of winning and losing experiences would be reached when different aspects of contest behaviour (probability of initiating attacks, probability of winning non‐escalated and escalated contests, escalation rate and contest duration) were measured. The results indicated that the apparent persistence of the effect of winning or losing experiences varied with the behaviour studied. When the likelihood to initiate attacks was used, no winner effect was detected while the loser effect lasted for <1 d. When escalation rate was used, the winner effect lasted for 2–4 d, while the loser effect lasted for 1–2 d. When the probability of winning non‐escalated contests was used, the winner effect was detectable for <1 d, while the loser effect lasted for 2–4 d. And, when contest duration was used, the winner effect was detectable for 2–4 d, but no loser effect was detectable. These results show that (1) the probability of winning a subsequent contest understated the persistence of the influence of a winning experience on the fish’s contest decisions, (2) the measures most effective at detecting winner effects are different from those most effective at detecting loser effects and (3) in K. marmoratus, both effects can be detected 2 d after the completion of experience training but both dissipate in 4 d.     

Effect of genes, social experience, and their interaction on the courtship behaviour of transgenic Drosophila males

Behaviour depends (a) on genes that specify the neural and non-neural elements involved in the perception of and responses to sensory stimuli and (b) on experience that can modulate the fine development of these elements. We exposed transgenic and control Drosophila melanogaster males, and their hybrids, to male siblings during adult development and measured the contribution of genes and of experience to their courtship behaviour. The transgene CheB42a specifically targets male gustatory sensillae and alters the perception of male inhibitory pheromones which leads to frequent male-male interactions. The age at which social experience occurred and the genotype of tester males induced a variable effect on the intensity of male homo- and heterosexual courtship. The strong interaction between the effects of genes and of social experience reveals the plasticity of the apparently stereotyped elements involved in male courtship behaviour. Finally, a high intensity of homosexual courtship was found only in males that simultaneously carried a mutation in their white gene and the CheB42a transgene.     

Inspection behaviour and inter-individual cooperation in juvenile qingbo: the effects of prior predator exposure and food deprivation

The predation pressure and food availability to which individuals are exposed during their life histories shape inspection behaviour in animals. In this study, we aimed to test whether such behaviours varied with prior experience (predation, starvation or both treatments) or measurement condition (with or without the presence of a predator; here, the snakehead fish, Channa argus) in the fish species Spinibarbus sinensis, known as qingbo. Unexpectedly, prior predator experience showed no significant effect on inspection behaviour as demonstrated by either the frequency or the duration of each activity outside shelter or on cooperation as demonstrated by the inter-individual distance or synchronization of speed. This may have been due to the different adjustments in behaviour among individuals (more shelter use vs. more inspection), the predator treatment used in the present study (exposure to caged predator rather than direct predation) and/or a species-specific strategy in the qingbo. The starved fish displayed shorter inspection latency, increased inspection behaviour and greater cooperation when measured without the predator; however, when measured in the presence of the predator, the starved fish showed increased inspection frequency but shorter inspection duration, possibly due to the compromise between energy needs and predation risk. Similar to those of the predation group, the fish from the double-treated group showed no difference in inspection behaviour compared to the control group under the predator-absent condition, while the high-frequency, short-duration inspection behaviours remained the same as in the starved group. These findings suggested that the adjustment of inspection behaviour and related cooperation are rather complicated according to either predator experience or food deprivation, partially due to the inter-individual differences in behavioural adjustment and/or different environmental conditions.     

Modifying effect of the repeated experience of agonistic confrontations on effect of naltrexone in male mice

In mice with different experience of agonistic confrontations: victories or social defeats during 3 and 10 days (T3 and T10 winners and T3 and T10 losers, resp.), T10 winners displayed a lesser aggression and a more hostile behaviour than T3 winners. Naltrexone dose-dependently decreased attacks in the T3 winners and did not affect aggressive grooming, diggings, autogrooming, and exploratory activity. Naltrexone was ineffective in T10 winners. The naltrexone effects were similar in T3 and T10 losers and its high and low doses contrarily affected different parameters of submissive behaviour. The repeated experience of agonistic confrontations seems to modify the naltrexone effects depending on a neurochemical background, differing in winners and losers.     

Prey-capture techniques and prey preferences of Chrysilla, Natta and Siler, ant-eating jumping spiders (Araneae, Salticidae) from Kenya and Sri Lanka

The predatory behaviour of Chrysilla lauta and Sliersemiglaucus from Sri Lanka, and four species of Natta from Kenya, was studied in the laboratory for the first time. These salticids eat ants, a prey most salticids avoid. These species' specialized behaviour for catching ants is described and compared to their behaviour for catching other insects. Three different types of tests of prey preference were carried out and, in each type, ants were taken in preference to other insects. Preference for ants, and prey-specific predatory behaviour did not depend on prior experience with ants. Results from this study are discussed in relation to recent findings on other ant-eating salticids.     

Learning by embryos and the ghost of predation future

Most research on the effects of exposure to stressful stimuli during embryonic development has focused on post-embryonic behaviour that appears to be abnormal or maladaptive. Here, we tested whether exposure to some stressful stimuli (predatory cues) can lead to post-embryonic behaviour that is adaptive. When eggs of ringed salamanders (Ambystoma annulatum) were exposed to chemical cues from predators, post-hatching larvae showed reduced activity and greater shelter-seeking behaviour; larvae that had been exposed to control cues did not show these behaviours. In addition, wood frog (Rana sylvatica)tadpoles learned to respond to chemical cues from unfamiliar predators with danger based on embryonic conditioning. Therefore, if embryonic experience is a good predictor of future risk, learning associated with exposure to negative stimuli during development may be adaptive.