Animal Board Invited Review: Comparing conventional and organic livestock production systems on different aspects of sustainability

To sustainably contribute to food security of a growing and richer world population, livestock production systems are challenged to increase production levels while reducing environmental impact, being economically viable, and socially responsible. Knowledge about the sustainability performance of current livestock production systems may help to formulate strategies for future systems. Our study provides a systematic overview of differences between conventional and organic livestock production systems on a broad range of sustainability aspects and animal species available in peer-reviewed literature. Systems were compared on economy, productivity, environmental impact, animal welfare and public health. The review was limited to dairy cattle, beef cattle, pigs, broilers and laying hens, and to Europe, North America and New Zealand. Results per indicators are presented as in the articles without performing additional calculations. Out of 4171 initial search hits, 179 articles were analysed. Studies varied widely in indicators, research design, sample size and location and context. Quite some studies used small samples. No study analysed all aspects of sustainability simultaneously. Conventional systems had lower labour requirements per unit product, lower income risk per animal, higher production per animal per time unit, higher reproduction numbers, lower feed conversion ratio, lower land use, generally lower acidification and eutrophication potential per unit product, equal or better udder health for cows and equal or lower microbiological contamination. Organic systems had higher income per animal or full time employee, lower impact on biodiversity, lower eutrophication and acidification potential per unit land, equal or lower likelihood of antibiotic resistance in bacteria and higher beneficial fatty acid levels in cow milk. For most sustainability aspects, sometimes conventional and sometimes organic systems performed better, except for productivity, which was consistently higher in conventional systems. For many aspects and animal species, more data are needed to conclude on a difference between organic and conventional livestock production systems.     

Hoop Housing for Feeder Pigs Offers a Welfare-Friendly Environment Compared to a Nonbedded Confinement System

Total confinement systems of swine production offer several benefits and costs in terms of animal welfare. Swine raised in total confinement are protected from environmental extremes and predators; however, welfare concerns stem from observations of stereotypic behavior and lameness of pigs, common in some of these systems. Because total confinement systems are expensive to build and maintain compared to less intensive systems, producers have become interested in an inexpensive alternative: hoop structures (Hoop). Open-ended Quonsets shaped like a half cylinder lying on its flat side, the Hoop use bedding to keep the pigs dry and allow this bedding to compost beneath the pigs to keep them warm in winter. This project compared the behavior and physiology of pigs in a nonbedded confinement system (NBCS) with those in the Hoop. Two experiments, 1 in the winter and 1 in the summer, assessed the welfare of pigs based on the incidence of aberrant behavior, physiologic response to handling, incidence of lameness, and the performance of play behavior. Pigs raised in the NBCS performed more aberrant behaviors and less play behavior, had greater plasma cortisol in response to handling (but fewer vocalizations), and a greater incidence of injuries than did the pigs raised in the Hoop. Based on these data, pigs in the Hoop were adjudged to have enhanced welfare as compared to pigs raised in the NBCS. Because the welfare of pigs in the Hoop appears to be greater than the welfare of pigs raised in the NBCS, future research should determine which factors are most important to pigs and then try to incorporate these into production systems.     

A Comparative Risk Assessment of Genetically Engineered,Mutagenic, and Conventional Wheat Production Systems

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties produced using modern biotechnologies, such as genetic engineering and mutagenic techniques, have lagged behind other crop species, but are now being developed and, in the case of mutagenic wheat, commercially grown around the world. Because these wheat varieties have emerged recently, there is a unique opportunity to assess comparatively the potential environmental risks (human health, ecological, and livestock risks) associated with genetically engineered, mutagenic, and conventional wheat production systems. Replacement of traditional herbicides with glyphosate in a glyphosate-tolerant (genetically engineered) wheat system or imazamox in an imidazolinone-tolerant (mutagenic) wheat system may alter environmental risks associated with weed management. Additionally, because both systems rely on plants that express novel proteins, the proteins and plants themselves may impose risks. The purpose of our study was to examine comparatively the multiple aspects of risk associated with different wheat production systems in the US and Canada using the risk assessment paradigm. Specifically, we used tier 1 quantitative and qualitative risk assessment methods to compare specific environmental risks associated with the different wheat production systems. Both glyphosate and imazamox present lower human health and ecological risks than many other herbicides associated with conventional wheat production systems evaluated in this study. The differences in risks were most pronounced when comparing glyphosate and imazamox to herbicides currently with substantial market share. Current weight-of-evidence suggests that the transgenic CP4 EPSPS protein present in glyphosate-tolerant wheat poses negligible risk to humans, livestock, and wildlife. Risk for mutated AHAS protein in imidazolinone-tolerant wheat most likely would be low, but there are not sufficient effect and exposure data to adequately characterize risk. Environmental risks for herbicides were more amenable to quantitative assessments than for the transgenic CP4 EPSPS protein and the mutated AHAS protein.     

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in slaughter pigs in Shanghai,China

Toxoplasma gondii is a pathogen that seriously threatens the health of humans and animals. However, the current infection status of T. gondii in slaughter pigs in Shanghai is still not clear. To investigate the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection and analyze the prevalence factors associated with the parasite infection, 1158 serum samples were collected from five slaughterhouses in three districts between 2015 and 2018. Serum antibodies against T. gondii were detected in 160 pigs (13.8%) by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Additionally, seroprevalence rates differed among different districts (ranging from 4.0% in JD-2 to 17.6% in JD-1), seasons (ranging from 6.7% in winter to 17.8% in autumn), and years (ranging from 8.0% in 2016 to 26.8% in 2015). Region, season, and year were the main factors affecting T. gondii infection in these pigs. There were few reports on serological monitoring of T. gondii in Shanghai slaughterhouses between 2015 and 2018, and the number of infections had steadily increased over the past several consecutive years. Therefore, our data are helpful to understand the epidemic status of T. gondii in Shanghai, which will strengthen the prevention and treatment of swine toxoplasmosis.     

Livestock,nutrition, and intrahousehold resource control in Uasin Gishu district,Kenya

Increased livestock production in developing countries is seen as one way to improve world food supply. However, the impact of increased livestock production on household health and nutrition is unknown. This paper examines linkages between commercialization of livestock production and household nutrition. Linkages include income, resource allocation, food consumption, and human disease risk. Data from Uasin Gishu district, Kenya, show higher consumption of animal products for large commercialized farms, along with greater control of milk sales by men. Effects of livestock development may thus differ by gender, and may include both positive and negative impacts.     

Phenotypic and genotypic stability of multiple lines of transgenic pigs expressing recombinant human protein C

The genotypic and phenotypic stability of four lines of transgenic pigs expressing recombinant human protein C in milk was examined. Two lines were established with a construct consisting of a 2.6 kb mouse WAP promoter and a 9.4 kb human protein C genomic DNA. Two lines were established with another construct consisting of a 4.1 kb mouse WAP promoter and a 9.4 kb human protein C genomic DNA. Genotypic stability was measured by transgene copy number transmission. Outbred offspring having a single transgene integration locus were established from a founder having three independent, multicopy loci. Phenotypic stability over multiple lactations was defined by the combination of recombinant human protein C expression levels and the isoform signature of recombinant human protein C in western blots. Both cDNA and genomic human protein C transgenes gave similar ranges of expression levels of about 100--1800 g ml–1. Within a given outbred lineage having a single loci for the cDNA transgene, the expression levels ranged between 100--400 g ml–1. Western blots of reduced recombinant protein C revealed that single chain content was not dependent on expression level and was consistent within each transgenic line, but varied between transgenic lines. This suggests that native swine genetics may play a role in selection of production herds with optimal post-translational proteolytic processing capability. Although swine are not conventional dairy livestock, it is agreed that the short generation times, multiple offspring per litter, stable paternal transmission of the transgene, and milk production capabilities of swine offer distinct advantages over conventional dairy livestock for the establishment of a herd producing a therapeutic recombinant protein     

Integrated models of livestock systems for climate change studies. 2. Intensive systems

The potential impact of climate change by the year 2050 on intensive livestock systems in Britain is assessed through the use of simulation models of farming systems. The submodels comprise livestock feeding, livestock thermal balance and the thermal balance of controlled environment buildings and a stochastic weather generator. These are integrated to form system models for growing pigs and broiler chickens. They are applied to scenarios typical of SE England, which is the warmest region of the country and represents the worst case. For both species the frequency of severe heat stress is substantially increased, with a consequent risk of mortality. To offset this, it would be necessary to reduce stocking densities considerably, or to invest in improved ventilation or cooling equipment. Other effects on production are likely to be small.     

Assessing Risk of Unintended Antigen Occurrence in Food: A Case Instance for Maize-Expressed LT-B

Plant-based antigen production represents an innovative strategy for low cost vaccine production and delivery. Successfully advancing plant-made antigen production in open field systems requires understanding of confinement integrity and consequences of inadvertent occurrence in the food supply. The food safety implications of confinement loss and inadvertent antigen occurrence in the food supply can be effectively addressed using quantitative exposure assessment along with knowledge of properties of specific antigens. We report here a food safety risk assessment for the maize-expressed heat-labile enterotoxin subunit B of Escherichia coli (LT-B). In addition to dietary exposure assessment, food safety considerations for maize-expressed LT-B included assessment of allergenic potential, levels and sites of transgenic protein expression, history of use, post-translational glycosylation, protein processing and digestive stability, mammalian functionality and toxicity, and compositional characteristics of the transformed plant. As shown for LT-B, inadvertent occurrence in the food supply of a plant-produced antigen constitutes a minimal human health concern principally because of limited exposure potential.     

Boric acid dust as a component of an integrated cockroach management program in confined swine production

Boric acid dust treatments were evaluated as a tool for the integrated management of the German cockroach, Blattella germanica (L.), in commercial confined swine production. The efficacy of boric acid dust was comparable to that of an organic residual insecticide, cyfluthrin, which is commonly used to control cockroaches in this environment. Fall treatments suppressed the cockroach population for longer durations than treatments in the Spring. Boric acid dust is an effective, inexpensive, and low risk (to animal and human health, and the environment) alternative for the management of cockroaches in livestock production systems.     

Toxoplasma gondii infection and testosterone congruently increase tolerance of male rats for risk of reward forfeiture

Decision making under risk involves balancing the potential of gaining rewards with the possibility of loss and/or punishment. Tolerance to risk varies between individuals. Understanding the biological basis of risk tolerance is pertinent because excessive tolerance contributes to adverse health and safety outcomes. Yet, not much is known about biological factors mediating inter-individual variability in this regard. We investigate if latent Toxoplasma gondii infection can cause risk tolerance. Using a rodent model of the balloon analogous risk task, we show that latent T. gondii infection leads to a greater tolerance of reward forfeiture. Furthermore, effects of the infection on risk can be recapitulated with testosterone supplementation alone, demonstrating that greater testosterone synthesis by the host post-infection is sufficient to change risk tolerance. T. gondii is a frequent parasite of humans and animals. Thus, the infection status can potentially explain some of the inter-individual variability in the risky decision making.     

Modelling Japanese encephalitis virus transmission dynamics and human exposure in a Cambodian rural multi-host system

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a vector-borne zoonosis and the leading cause of human viral encephalitis in Asia. Its transmission cycle is usually described as involving wild birds as reservoirs and pigs as amplifying hosts. JE is endemic in Cambodia, where it circulates in areas with low pig densities (<70 pigs per km²), and could be maintained in a multi-host system composed of pigs, but also poultry as competent hosts, and dogs, cattle and humans as non-competent hosts. We used a mathematical model representing Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) transmission in a traditional Cambodian village that we calibrated with field data collected in 3 districts of Kandal province, Cambodia. First, R₀ calculations allowed us to assess the capacity of the epidemiological system to be invaded by JEV and sustain virus transmission in villages in the 3 districts, and we predicted human exposure at the epidemiological equilibrium, based on simulations. Changes in spatial density of livestock, in agricultural practices, and epizootics (e.g., African swine fever), can profoundly alter the composition of host communities, which could affect JEV transmission and its impact on human health. In a second step, we then used the model to analyse how host community composition affected R₀ and the predicted human exposure. Lastly, we evaluated the potential use of dog JE seroprevalence as an indicator of human exposure to JEV. In the modeled villages, the calculated R₀ ranged from 1.07 to 1.38. Once the equilibrium reached, predicted annual probability of human exposure ranged from 9% to 47%, and predicted average age at infection was low, between 2 and 11 years old, highlighting the risk of severe forms of JEV infection and the need to intensify child immunization. According to the model, increasing the proportion of competent hosts induced a decrease in age at infection. The simulations also showed that JEV could invade a multi-host system with no pigs, reinforcing the assumption of poultry acting as reservoirs. Finally, the annual human exposure probability appeared linearly correlated with dog seroprevalence, suggesting that in our specific study area, dog seroprevalence would be a good proxy for human exposure.     

An aerobiological study in the rural areas of Aragon (Spain) with a high population of pigs

The development of intensive livestock farming in the swine industry has created problems associated not only with disease control but also with the disposal of excreta and other waste products. Both waste products and animals can contaminate the air of confinement swine buildings and their surroundings. The objective of this work was to determine the concentration and species composition of the bacterial and fungal microflora in the air of different villages with a high population of pigs in their surroundings. Outdoor air sampling was conducted in 24 rural urban nucleus of Aragon (Spain). In each site, three sampling points were done: one in the center of the town, another in the outskirts of the same town, and the last one in the surrounding farms. Microorganisms were isolated with a sampler Surface Air System (S.A.S.). In the quantitative analysis, the potential risk of exposure to airborne microorganisms decreased outside and near of the farms and, of course, in other sampling points, because the airborne levels of total bacteria and fungi found in the three points are similar, slightly higher in the surrounding farms and lower inside of the buildings. The genera Staphylococcus and Bacillus among isolated Grampositive bacteria were the most common, while among the Gram-negative genera often were Alcaligenes and Acinetobacter in most cases observed. In fungi, the most isolated genera were Cladosporium, Aspergillus, Penicillium and Alternaria, which are very important aeroallergens. In this work, were found no differences between the three sampling, which are indicative of few microbial contamination of the air from swine confinement buildings at short distances.     

禽流感与猪流感病毒：跨越物种传播的新认识

今年在墨西哥暴发的流感疫情来源于一种新的流感病毒：甲型H1N1病毒．这种病毒包括人源,禽源和猪源等甲型流感病毒基因片段,为混合毒株．比较了禽、猪和人的流感病毒在其天然宿主中的致病机理,主要目的是评估猪和禽的流感病毒成为人兽共患病的可能性,同时还评估猪在禽流感病毒传入人的过程中可能起到的作用．禽流感和猪流感作为人畜共患疾病,在流感病毒从动物到人的传播过程中起到关键的作用．猪作为流感病毒的中间宿主,具有混合器作用,人、猪、禽流感病毒可在其体内进行基因重排产生新病毒,并可能跨越种间屏障感染人类．但是流感病毒本身的跨越种间障碍传播不足以引起人流感的大暴发,动物流感病毒必须经过显著的遗传变异后才能使其在人群中长期存在．     

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in pigs in Southwestern China

The seroprevalence of toxoplasmosis in pigs was investigated in Yunnan province, Southwestern China between March 2008 and January 2009. A total of 831 serum samples were collected from 9 counties and assayed for Toxoplasma gondii antibodies by indirect haemagglutination (IHA) test. Antibodies to T. gondii were found in 16.97% (141/831) with slaughter pigs having the highest rate (22.28%), followed by breeding sows (16.59%). The results of the present survey indicated that infection with T. gondii in pigs is widely spread in China, including the Yunnan province, and is of public health concern.     

Detection and genetic characterisation of Toxoplasma gondii circulating in free-range chickens,pigs and seropositive pregnant women in Benue state,Nigeria

Toxoplasma gondii parasites present strong but geographically varied signatures of population structure. Populations sampled from Europe and North America have commonly been defined by over-representation of a small number of clonal types, in contrast to greater diversity in South America. The occurrence and extent of genetic diversity in African T. gondii populations remains understudied, undermining assessments of risk and transmission. The present study was designed to establish the occurrence, genotype and phylogeny of T. gondii in meat samples collected from livestock produced for human consumption (free-range chickens, n = 173; pigs, n = 211), comparing with T. gondii detected in blood samples collected from seropositive pregnant women (n = 91) in Benue state, Nigeria. The presence of T. gondii DNA was determined using a published nested polymerase chain reaction, targeting the 529 bp multicopy gene element. Samples with the highest parasite load (assessed using quantitative PCR) were selected for PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) targeting the surface antigen 3 (SAG3), SAG2 (5’ and 3’), beta-tubulin (BTUB) and dense granule protein 6 (GRA6) loci, and the apicoplast genome (Apico). Toxoplasma gondii DNA was detected in all three of the populations sampled, presenting 30.6, 31.3 and 25.3% occurrence in free-range chickens, pigs and seropositive pregnant women, respectively. Quantitative-PCR indicated low parasite occurrence in most positive samples, limiting some further molecular analyses. PCR-RFLP results suggested that T. gondii circulating in the sampled populations presented with a type II genetic background, although all included a hybrid type I/II or II/III haplotype. Concatenation of aligned RFLP amplicon sequences revealed limited diversity with nine haplotypes and little indication of host species-specific or spatially distributed sub-populations. Samples collected from humans shared haplotypes with free-range chickens and/or pigs. Africa remains under-explored for T. gondii genetic diversity and this study provides the first detailed definition of haplotypes circulating in human and animal populations in Nigeria.     

Social stress increases fecal shedding of Salmonella typhimurium by early weaned piglets

"Segregated early weaning" (SEW) of pigs reduces exposure to pathogenic bacteria, but upon arrival at grower facilities pigs may be co-mingled regardless of farm of origin. The present study was designed to examine the effect of mixing (social) stress on populations of Salmonella enterica Typhimurium in SEW pigs. Piglets (7 days old; n = 28 in each of 2 replicates) were separated into 2 treatments (control and mixed groups) of 2 pens per treatment (7 piglets/pen). One (n = 1) "seeder" pig/pen was inoculated with 10(9) CFU of S. Typhimurium. Each seeder was placed with non-inoculated "contact" piglets (n = 6). A"contact" piglet was swapped each day between the "mixed" pens for 5 days; pigs in control pens were not exchanged. On day 5, the incidence of fecal Salmonella shedding was higher in the mixed contact pigs (P < 0.05). Rectal Salmonella and cecal coliform populations in mixed pigs were significantly (P < 0.05) greater than in control pigs but cecal Salmonella populations were not different. Mixed pigs were more susceptible to tissue invasiveness (i.e., Salmonella-positive tonsils and lymph nodes) than control pigs. These results indicate that social stress of weaned pigs may increase susceptibility to and/or fecal shedding of Salmonella. Food-borne Salmonella infections in the United States are estimated to cost the economy dollar 2.4 billion annually (ERS/USDA, 2001). Approximately 6-9% of human salmonellosis is associated with the consumption of pork products (Frenzen et al., 1999). Salmonella is relatively common on swine farms and has been isolated from all stages of the pork production chain (Davies et al., 1999; Fedorka-Cray et al., 1997b; Rostagno et al., 2003). Salmonella is a threat to the pork industry not only from a food-safety perspective as a public health concern, but some Salmonella serotypes can cause clinical illnesses in swine, negatively impacting production efficiency and profitability (Schwartz, 1991).     

A chloroplast‐derived Toxoplasma gondii GRA4 antigen used as an oral vaccine protects against toxoplasmosis in mice

The parasitic protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, the causal agent of toxoplasmosis, can infect most mammals and birds. In human medicine, T. gondii can cause complications in pregnant women and immunodeficient individuals, while in veterinary medicine, T. gondii infection has economic importance due to abortion and neonatal loss in livestock. Thus, the development of an effective anti‐Toxoplasma vaccine would be of great value. In this study, we analysed the expression of T. gondii GRA4 antigen by chloroplast transformation (chlGRA4) in tobacco plants and evaluated the humoral and cellular responses and the grade of protection after oral administration of chlGRA4 in a murine model. The Western blot analysis revealed a specific 34‐kDa band mainly present in the insoluble fractions. The chlGRA4 accumulation levels were approximately 6 μg/g of fresh weight (equivalent to 0.2% of total protein). Oral immunization with chlGRA4 resulted in a decrease of 59% in the brain cyst load of mice compared to control mice. ChlGRA4 immunization elicited both a mucosal immune response characterized by the production of specific IgA, and IFN‐γ, IL‐4 and IL‐10 secretion by mesenteric lymph node cells, and a systemic response in terms of GRA4‐specific serum antibodies and secretion of IFN‐γ, IL‐4 and IL‐10 by splenocytes. Our results indicate that oral administration of chlGRA4 promotes the elicitation of both mucosal and systemic balanced Th1/Th2 responses that control Toxoplasma infection, reducing parasite loads.     

Seroprevalence and risk factors associated with Toxoplasma gondii in domestic pigs from Spain

Serum samples from 2970 (1400 sows, 1570 fattening) pigs, from 100 farms in the 10 main swine production regions in Spain were tested for antibodies against T. gondii by the modified agglutination test (MAT). Antibodies to T. gondii (MAT 1:25 or higher) were detected in 492 pigs (16.6%, 9.7% in fattening pigs and 24.2% in sows). The herd prevalence was 85.0% (95% CI: 78–92) and within-farm prevalence ranged from 2.9% to 92.8% (median = 17.6%). Statistically significant differences were observed among sampling regions with seroprevalence significantly higher in pigs from Valencia Community (27.3%), Extremadura (23.3%) and Catalonia (21.2%). A generalized estimating equations model indicated that the risk factors associated with T. gondii seroprevalence were: age, sows compared to fattening pigs (OR = 2.9; 95% CI = 1.83–4.53), lack of rodent control (OR = 1.9; 95% CI = 1.04–3.60) and presence of cats (OR = 1.6; 95% CI = 1.12–2.34). The seroprevalence observed in the present study indicates a widespread, although variable, exposure to T. gondii among domestic pigs in Spain, which might have important implications for public health. Management measures including control of rodents and cats on the farms could help to reduce the observed prevalence levels in Spain.     

Genetic and Experimental Evidence for Cross-Species Infection by Swine Hepatitis E Virus

Prior to the recent discovery of the swine hepatitis E virus (swine HEV) in pigs from the midwestern United States, HEV was not considered endemic to this country. Since swine HEV is antigenically and genetically related to human strains of HEV, it was important to characterize this new virus further. The infectivity titer of a pool of swine HEV in pigs was determined in order to prepare a standardized reagent and to evaluate the dose response in pigs. Although the sequence of swine HEV varied extensively from those of most human strains of HEV, it was very closely related to the two strains of human HEV (US-1 and US-2) isolated in the United States. The U.S. strains which were recently recovered from two patients with clinical hepatitis E in the United States shared ≥97% amino acid identity with swine HEV in open reading frames 1 and 2. Phylogenetic analyses of different regions of the genome revealed that swine HEV and the U.S. strains grouped together and formed a distinct branch. These results suggested that swine HEV may infect humans. When we inoculated rhesus monkeys and a chimpanzee, experimental surrogates of humans, with swine HEV, the primates became infected. Furthermore, in a reciprocal experiment, specific-pathogen-free pigs were experimentally infected with the US-2 strain of human HEV that is genetically similar to swine HEV. These results provided experimental evidence for cross-species infection by the swine virus. Thus, humans appear to be at risk of infection with swine HEV or closely related viruses.     

Assessing Patterns of Human-Wildlife Conflicts and Compensation around a Central Indian Protected Area

Mitigating crop and livestock loss to wildlife and improving compensation distribution are important for conservation efforts in landscapes where people and wildlife co-occur outside protected areas. The lack of rigorously collected spatial data poses a challenge to management efforts to minimize loss and mitigate conflicts. We surveyed 735 households from 347 villages in a 5154 km² area surrounding Kanha Tiger Reserve in India. We modeled self-reported household crop and livestock loss as a function of agricultural, demographic and environmental factors, and mitigation measures. We also modeled self-reported compensation received by households as a function of demographic factors, conflict type, reporting to authorities, and wildlife species involved. Seventy-three percent of households reported crop loss and 33% livestock loss in the previous year, but less than 8% reported human injury or death. Crop loss was associated with greater number of cropping months per year and proximity to the park. Livestock loss was associated with grazing animals inside the park and proximity to the park. Among mitigation measures only use of protective physical structures were associated with reduced livestock loss. Compensation distribution was more likely for tiger related incidents, and households reporting loss and located in the buffer. Average estimated probability of crop loss was 0.93 and livestock loss was 0.60 for surveyed households. Estimated crop and livestock loss and compensation distribution were higher for households located inside the buffer. Our approach modeled conflict data to aid managers in identifying potential conflict hotspots, influential factors, and spatially maps risk probability of crop and livestock loss. This approach could help focus allocation of conservation efforts and funds directed at conflict prevention and mitigation where high densities of people and wildlife co-occur.