Health effects of static magnetic fields--a review of the epidemiological evidence

Potential health effects of static magnetic fields have received far less attention than, for example, power frequency or radiofrequency fields. Static fields are found in certain occupational settings, e.g. in the aluminium and chloralkali industries, in arc-welding processes, and certain railways systems. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for medical diagnosis is another source. This paper summarizes the epidemiological evidence of static magnetic field exposure and long-term health effects. There are only a few epidemiological studies available, and the majority of these have focused on cancer risks. There are some reports on reproductive outcomes, and sporadic studies of other outcomes. Overall, few occupational studies have focused specifically on effects of static magnetic field exposure, and exposure assessment have consequently been poor or non-existent. Results from studies that have estimated static magnetic field exposure have not indicated any increased cancer risks, but they are generally based on small numbers of cases and crude exposure assessment. Control of confounding has been limited, and it is likely that the “healthy worker” effect have influenced the results. A few studies have reported results on reproductive outcomes among aluminium workers and MRI operators, but limitations in study designs prevent conclusions. A problem in epidemiological studies of static magnetic fields is that workers in exposed occupations are also exposed to a wide variety of other potentially harmful agents, including some known carcinogens. In conclusion, the available evidence from epidemiological studies is not sufficient to draw any conclusions about potential health effects of static magnetic field exposure.     

Interaction of static and extremely low frequency electric and magnetic fields with living systems: health effects and research needs

An international seminar was held June 4-6, 1997, on the biological effects and related health hazards of ambient or environmental static and extremely low frequency (ELF) electric and magnetic fields (0-300 Hz). It was cosponsored by the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP), the German, Japanese, and Swiss governments. Speakers provided overviews of the scientific literature that were discussed by participants of the meeting. Subsequently, expert working groups formulated this report, which evaluates possible health effects from exposure to static and ELF electric and magnetic fields and identifies gaps in knowledge requiring more research to improve health risk assessments. The working groups concluded that, although health hazards exist from exposure to ELF fields at high field strengths, the literature does not establish that health hazards are associated with exposure to low-level fields, including environmental levels. Similarly, exposure to static electric fields at levels currently found in the living and working environment or acute exposure to static magnetic fields at flux densities below 2 T, were not found to have demonstrated adverse health consequences. However, reports of biological effects from low-level ELF-field exposure and chronic exposure to static magnetic fields were identified that need replication and further study for WHO to assess any possible health consequences. Ambient static electric fields have not been reported to cause any direct adverse health effects, and so no further research in this area was deemed necessary.     

Rapporteur report: Epidemiology

Three talks were presented in the session on “Epidemiology”. The first talk was a review of prenatal studies. The second talk presented epidemiological evidence from prenatal studies. The third talk presented general issues regarding the planning of an epidemiological study. It was noted that epidemiological studies of prenatal exposures use data from the early 1980s when ultrasound was first introduced for foetal scans. These studies did not show associations between prenatal ultrasound scanning and childhood cancer, reduced birth weight, impaired childhood growth or neurological development in childhood. However, there was a possible association between prenatal ultrasound scanning and left-handedness in boys. The aetiology of this association remains uncertain.     

The effect of static magnetic fields on the rate of calcium/calmodulin-dependent phosphorylation of myosin light chain

This study reports an attempt to confirm a published and well-defined biological effect of magnetic fields. The biological model investigated was the phosphorylation of myosin light chain in a cell free system. The rate of phosphorylation has been reported to be affected in an approximately linear manner by static magnetic field strengths in the range 0-200 microT. We performed three series of experiments, two to test the general hypothesis and a third that was a direct replication of published work. We found no effect of static magnetic field strength on the rate of phosphorylation. Hence, we were unable to confirm that weak static magnetic fields affect the binding of calcium to calmodulin. In view of the difficulty we and other authors have had making independent verifications of claimed biological effects of magnetic fields, we would urge caution in the interpretation of published data until they have been independently confirmed. There are still few well defined biological effects of low level magnetic fields that have been successfully transferred to an independent laboratory.     

Mechanism of action of combined extremely weak magnetic field on aqueous solution of amino acid

The fundamental physical mechanisms of resonance action of an extremely weak (40 nT) alternating magnetic field at the cyclotron frequency combined with a weak (40 μT) static magnetic field, on living systems are analyzed in the present work. The experimental effects of such sort of magnetic fields were described in different papers: the very narrow resonant peaks in electrical conductivity of the aqueous solutions in the in vitro experiments and the biomedical in vivo effects on living animals of magnetic fields with frequencies tuned to some amino acids. The existing experimental in vitro data had a good repeatability in different laboratories and countries. Unfortunately, for free ions such sort of effects are absolutely impossible because the dimensions of an ion rotation radius should be measured by meters at room temperature and at very low static magnetic fields used in all the above experiments. Even for bound ions these effects should be also absolutely impossible from the positions of classic physics because of rather high viscosity of biological liquid media (blood plasma, cerebrospinal liquid, cytoplasm). Only modern quantum electrodynamics of condensed media opens the new ways for solving these problems. The proposed article is devoted to analysis of quantum mechanisms of these effects.     

Design,construction, and validation of a large capacity rodent magnetic field exposure laboratory

A magnetic field exposure laboratory has been constructed to support National Toxicology Program studies for the evaluation of the toxicity and carcinogenicity of pure, linearly polarized, 60 Hz magnetic fields in rodents. This dual corridor, controlled access facility can support the simultaneous exposure of 1200 rats and 1200 mice. The facility contains fully redundant electrical and environmental control systems and was constructed using non‐metallic materials to maintain low levels of background (ambient), stray, and cross‐talk magnetic fields. The exposure module design provides for large uniform exposure volumes with good control of stray and cross‐talk fields, while allowing the use of roll‐around cage racks for simplified animal husbandry. Stray fields and cross‐talk have been further reduced by the inclusion of “steering coils” in each exposure module. Ambient 60 Hz fields (less cross‐talk) in all exposure rooms are <0.1 μT (1 mG), and static magnetic fields have been mapped extensively. Magnetic field strength, waveform, temperature, relative humidity, light intensity, noise level, vibration, and air flow in all animal holding areas are tightly regulated, and are monitored continuously during all studies. Field uniformity in the animal exposure volumes is better than ±10%; a systematic program of cage, rack, and room rotation controls for possible positional effects within the exposure system. Magnetic fields are turned on and off over multiple cycles to prevent the induction of transients associated with abrupt field level changes. Total harmonic distortion is <3% at all field strengths. The facility has been used to study magnetic field bioeffects in rodent model systems in experiments ranging in duration from 8 weeks to 2 years. Bioelectromagnetics 20:13–23, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

WHO health risk assessment process for static fields

The World Health Organization (WHO) has a commitment to helping Member States achieve safe, sustainable and health-enhancing human environments, protected from biological, chemical and physical agents. The latter includes advising on the health impact of electromagnetic fields (EMFs) and radiation.

The results of the WHO/ICNIRP/NRPB workshop on static magnetic fields, published in this volume, provide a valuable and much needed contribution to the health risk assessment of exposure to static electric and magnetic fields, which is currently being coordinated by the WHO's International EMF Project. This WHO health risk assessment will be published as an environmental health criteria (EHC) monograph in early 2005.

This paper briefly gives an overview of the process of developing the WHO static fields EHC monograph, the criteria applied to studies that could contribute to the EHC, along with the ‘weight-of-evidence’ approach to health risk assessment. In addition, there is an increasing awareness of the need to account for uncertainty in the science database. This is traditionally addressed by further research, and the EMF project addresses these needs through the development of a ‘research agenda’. However, research programmes may take several years to complete, and the long latency associated with diseases such as cancer in people may also preclude a rapid outcome in some studies. The issue of current uncertainty is being addressed by the WHO EMF project through the development of a ‘precautionary framework’ in which precautionary measures will be applied to policy recommendations.     

Fifty years of brain tissue mechanical testing: from in vitro to in vivo investigations

Beginning in the 1960s many studies have been performed to investigate the mechanical properties of brain. In this paper we point out the difficulties linked with in vitro experimental protocols as well as the advantages of using recently developed non-invasive in vivo techniques, such as magnetic resonance elastography. Results of in vitro and in vivo work are compared, emphasizing the specificities and disparities of the in vitro as well as the in vivo results. In particular, a detailed discussion of the results obtained from dynamic shear experiments and magnetic resonance elastography is given before arriving at a tentative conclusion on the state of knowledge of the mechanical properties of brain.     

Effect of low-intensity magnetic fields on the development of satellite muscle cells of a newborn rat in the primary culture

The influence of Earth magnetic field shielded down to 0.3 microT and static magnetic field (60-160 microT) on the proliferation and differentiation of satellite muscle cells in the primary culture has been investigated. A stimulatory effect of static magnetic fields on the rate of the formation of massive multinucleated myotubes and an increase in the intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) have been detected for magnetic fields of the microtesla range. On the other hand, it was shown that the reduction of earth magnetic fields to 0.3 microT leads to the inhibition of proliferation and differentiation of skeletal muscle cells in the primary culture. Since the formation of contractile myotubes during in vitro experiments is similar to the regeneration of skeletal muscle fibers under muscle damage in vivo, it may be concluded that weak magnetic fields have a strong effect on intracellular processes by influencing all phases of muscle fiber formation. It is necessary to take this fact into consideration when forecasting probable complications of skeletal muscle regeneration during long-term exposure of man to low-intensity magnetic fields and also for the potential use of low static magnetic fields as a tool to recover the affected myogenesis.     

Influence of low-intensity magnetic fields on the development of satellite muscle cells of a newborn rat in primary culture

The influence of Earth magnetic field shielded down to 0.3 μT and static magnetic field (60–160 μT) on the proliferation and differentiation of satellite muscle cells in primary culture has been investigated. A stimulatory effect of static magnetic fields on the rate of the formation of massive multinucleate myotubes and an increase in the intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca²⁺] _i ) have been detected for magnetic fields of the microtesla range. On the other hand, it was shown that the reduction of earth magnetic fields to 0.3 μT leads to inhibition of proliferation and differentiation of skeletal muscle cells in primary culture. Since the formation of contractile myotubes during in vitro experiments is similar to the regeneration of skeletal muscle fibers under muscle damage in vivo, it may be concluded that weak magnetic fields have a strong effect on intracellular processes by influencing all phases of muscle fiber formation. It is necessary to take this fact into consideration when forecasting probable complications of skeletal muscle regeneration during long-term exposure of man to low-intensity magnetic fields and also for the potential use of low static magnetic fields as a tool to recover the affected myogenesis.     

Effects of static magnetic fields at the cellular level

There have been few studies on the effects of static magnetic fields at the cellular level, compared to those of extremely low frequency magnetic fields. Past studies have shown that a static magnetic field alone does not have a lethal effect on the basic properties of cell growth and survival under normal culture conditions, regardless of the magnetic density. Most but not all studies have also suggested that a static magnetic field has no effect on changes in cell growth rate. It has also been shown that cell cycle distribution is not influenced by extremely strong static magnetic fields (up to a maximum of 10 T). A further area of interest is whether static magnetic fields cause DNA damage, which can be evaluated by determination of the frequency of micronucleus formation. The presence or absence of such micronuclei can confirm whether a particular treatment damages cellular DNA. This method has been used to confirm that a static magnetic field alone has no such effect. However, the frequency of micronucleus formation increases significantly when certain treatments (e.g., X-irradiation) are given prior to exposure to a 10 T static magnetic field. It has also been reported that treatment with trace amounts of ferrous ions in the cell culture medium and exposure to a static magnetic field increases DNA damage, which is detected using the comet assay. In addition, many studies have found a strong magnetic field that can induce orientation phenomena in cell culture.     

The effects of the microwaves on E. coli cells depend on oxygen concentration and static magnetic field

The effects of non-thermal microwaves (MW), 10(-4) and 10(-10) W/cm(2), on conformation of nucleoids in E. coli cells were analyzed by the method of anomalous viscosity time dependence (AVTD). MW exposure was performed at different values of static magnetic field and concentration of oxygen, 8-90 microT, and 2.3-7.8 mg/l, respectively. It was shown, that slight changes in both static magnetic field and oxygen concentration result in significant changes of MW effects up to their disappearance. It was established, that changes in static magnetic field affected significantly the time kinetics of the MW effects. The obtained data provide further evidence for strong dependence of the effects of non-thermal microwaves on physical parameters of exposure and physiological factors. These dependences should be taken into account in replication studies. The obtained results encourage further investigation of possible modulation of non-thermal MW effects by additional electromagnetic fields.     

The oxidative modification hypothesis of atherogenesis: an overview

The literature relating lipid and lipoprotein oxidation to atherosclerosis has expanded enormously in recent years. Papers on the “oxidative modification hypothesis” of atherogenesis have ranged from the most basic studies of the chemistry and enzymology of LDL oxidation, through studies of the biological effects of oxidized LDL on cultured cells, and on to in vivo studies of the effects of antioxidants on atherosclerosis in animals and humans. The data in support of this theory are mounting but many key questions remain unanswered. For example, while it is generally agreed that LDL undergoes oxidation and that oxidized LDL is present in arterial lesions, it is still not known how and where LDL gets oxidized in vivo nor which of its many biological effects demonstrable in vitro are relevant to atherogenesis in vivo. This brief review is not intended to be comprehensive but rather to offer a perspective and a context for this Forum. We discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each line of evidence, try to identify areas in which further research is needed, assess the relevance of the hypothesis to the human disease, and point to some of the potential targets for therapy.     

Static magnetic fields: animal studies

Various experimental studies carried out over the last 30–40 years have examined the effects of the chronic or acute exposure of laboratory animals to static magnetic fields. Many of the earlier studies have been adequately reviewed elsewhere; few adverse effects were identified. This review focuses on studies carried out more recently, mostly those using vertebrates, particularly mammals. Four main areas of investigation have been covered, viz., nervous system and behavioural studies, cardiovascular system responses, reproduction and development, and genotoxicity and cancer. Work on the role of the natural geomagnetic field in animal orientation and migration has been omitted.

Generally, the acute responses found during exposure to static fields above about 4 T are consistent with those found in volunteer studies, namely the induction of flow potentials around the heart and the development of aversive/avoidance behaviour resulting from body movement in such fields. No consistently demonstrable effects of exposure to fields of 1 T and above have been seen on other behavioural or cardiovascular endpoints. In addition, no adverse effects of such fields on reproduction and development or on the growth and development of tumours have been firmly established. Overall, however, far too few animal studies have been carried out to reach any firm conclusions.     

31P-NMR study of the regulation of glycogenolysis in living skeletal muscle

Based on in vitro biochemical experiments, it is generally believed that glycogenolysis is regulated in two different ways; i.e., Ca2+ regulation at the phosphorylase step and phosphate-product regulation at the phosphofructokinase step. Recent studies on glycogenolysis in living vertebrate skeletal muscles using 31P nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) presented evidence that glycogenolysis in vivo is regulated by Ca2+ released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. We performed 31P-NMR studies on living frog skeletal muscle, and found that glycogenolysis is further regulated by the accumulation of phosphate products by contractile activity. Therefore, glycogenolysis in vivo can actually be regulated by the two mechanisms as predicted by in vitro biochemical studies.     

Inhibitory effects of a gradient static magnetic field on normal angiogenesis

Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels, is critical in many normal and pathological processes such as development, reproduction, tumor growth, and metastasis. Recently, exposure to moderate‐intensity static magnetic fields (1 mT to 1 T) has attracted much attention for its potential therapeutic value as a noninvasive intervening method. Nevertheless, the effects of moderate‐intensity and spatial gradient static magnetic fields (GSMF) on angiogenesis have not received enough attention. In this study, the effects of GSMF (0.2–0.4 T, 2.09 T/m, 1–11 days) on angiogenesis were investigated both in vitro and in vivo. An MTT assay was used as an in vitro method to detect the proliferation ability of human umbilical veins endothelial cells (HUVECs). Two kinds of in vivo models, a chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) and a matrigel plug, were used to detect the effects of GSMF on angiogenesis. The results showed that the proliferation ability of HUVECs was significantly inhibited 24 h after the onset of exposure. With regard to the CAM model, vascular numbers in the CAM that was continuously exposed to the GSMF were all less than those in normal condition. In accordance with the gross appearance, the contents of hemoglobin in the models exposed to GSMF for 7–9 days were also less. In addition, similar to the CAM model, the results of vascular density and hemoglobin contents in the matrigel plug also demonstrated that the GSMF exposure for 7 or 11 days inhibited vascularization. These findings indicate that GSMF might inhibit or prevent new blood vessels formation and could be helpful for the treatment of some diseases relevant to pathological angiogenesis. Bioelectromagnetics 30:446–453, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Defensive properties of pyrrolizidine alkaloids against microorganisms

The understanding of the selection factors that drive chemical diversification of secondary metabolites of constitutive defence systems in plants, such as pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), is still incomplete. Historically, plants always have been confronted with microorganisms. Long before herbivores existed on this planet, plants had to cope with microbial pathogens. Therefore, plant pathogenic microorganisms may have played an important role in the early evolution of the secondary metabolite diversity. In this review, we discuss the impact that plant-produced PAs have on plant-associated microorganisms. The objective of the review is to present the current knowledge on PAs with respect to anti-microbial activities, adaptation and detoxification by microorganisms, pathogenic fungi, root protection and PA induction. Many in vitro experiments showed effects of PAs on microorganisms. These results point to the potential of microorganisms to be important for the evolution of PAs. However, only a few in vivo studies have been published and support the results of the in vitro studies. In conclusion, the topics pointed out in this review need further exploration by carrying out ecological experiments and field studies.     

Exposure to strong static magnetic field slows the growth of human cancer cells in vitro

Proposals to enhance the amount of radiation dose delivered to small tumors with radioimmunotherapy by constraining emitted electrons with very strong homogeneous static magnetic fields has renewed interest in the cellular effects of prolonged exposures to such fields. Past investigations have not studied the effects on tumor cell growth of lengthy exposures to very high magnetic fields. Three malignant human cell lines, HTB 63 (melanoma), HTB 77 IP3 (ovarian carcinoma), and CCL 86 (lymphoma; Raji cells), were exposed to a 7 Tesla uniform static magnetic field for 64 hours. Following exposure, the number of viable cells in each group was determined. In addition, multicycle flow cytometry was performed on all cell lines, and pulsed-field electrophoresis was performed solely on Raji cells to investigate changes in cell cycle patterns and the possibility of DNA fragmentation induced by the magnetic field. A 64 h exposure to the magnetic field produced a reduction in viable cell number in each of the three cell lines. Reductions of 19.04 ± 7.32%, 22.06 ± 6.19%, and 40.68 ± 8.31% were measured for the melanoma, ovarian carcinoma, and lymphoma cell lines, respectively, vs. control groups not exposed to the magnetic field. Multicycle flow cytometry revealed that the cell cycle was largely unaltered. Pulsed-field electrophoresis analysis revealed no increase in DNA breaks related to magnetic field exposure. In conclusion, prolonged exposure to a very strong magnetic field appeared to inhibit the growth of three human tumor cell lines in vitro. The mechanism underlying this effect has not, as yet, been identified, although alteration of cell growth cycle and gross fragmentation of DNA have been excluded as possible contributory factors. Future investigations of this phenomenon may have a significant impact on the future understanding and treatment of cancer. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Electromagnetic fields in medicine – The state of art

ABSTRACT

Introduction: Intense development of methods belonging to physical medicine has been noted recently. There are treatment methods, which in many cases lead to reduction treatment time and positively influence on quality of life treatment patients. Research implications: The present physical medicine systematically extends their therapeutic possibilities. This above applies to illnesses and injuries of locomotor system, diseases affecting of soft tissues, as well as chronic wounds. The aim of the study: The evidence on this are the results of basic and clinical examinations relating the practical use of electromagnetic fields in medicine. Originality: In this work the authors introduced the procedure using the current knowledge relating to physical characteristic and biological effects of the magnetic fields. In the work the following methods were used: static magnetic fields, spatial magnetic fields, the variable magnetic fields both with laser therapy (magnetolaserotherapy) and variable magnetic fields both with light optical non-laser (magnetoledtherapy) talked.