pSAT RNA interference vectors: a modular series for multiple gene down-regulation in plants

RNA interference (RNAi) is a powerful tool for functional gene analysis, which has been successfully used to down-regulate the levels of specific target genes, enabling loss-of-function studies in living cells. Hairpin (hp) RNA expression cassettes are typically constructed on binary plasmids and delivered into plant cells by Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation. Realizing the importance of RNAi for basic plant research, various vectors have been developed for RNAi-mediated gene silencing, allowing the silencing of single target genes in plant cells. To further expand the collection of available tools for functional genomics in plant species, we constructed a set of modular vectors suitable for hpRNA expression under various constitutive promoters. Our system allows simple cloning of the target gene sequences into two distinct multicloning sites and its modular design provides a straightforward route for replacement of the expression cassette's regulatory elements. More importantly, our system was designed to facilitate the assembly of several hpRNA expression cassettes on a single plasmid, thereby enabling the simultaneous suppression of several target genes from a single vector. We tested the functionality of our new vector system by silencing overexpressed marker genes (green fluorescent protein, DsRed2, and nptII) in transgenic plants. Various combinations of hpRNA expression cassettes were assembled in binary plasmids; all showed strong down-regulation of the reporter genes in transgenic plants. Furthermore, assembly of all three hpRNA expression cassettes, combined with a fourth cassette for the expression of a selectable marker, resulted in down-regulation of all three different marker genes in transgenic plants. This vector system provides an important addition to the plant molecular biologist's toolbox, which will significantly facilitate the use of RNAi technology for analyses of multiple gene function in plant cells.     

Comparative Studies of Various Artificial microRNA Expression Vectors for RNAi in Mammalian Cells

Artificial microRNA (amiRNA) has recently become an important RNA interference (RNAi) technology for gene therapy and gene function studies. Here nine expression strategies were employed to construct plasmid vectors expressing amiRNA (amiR-Fluc) against firefly luciferase (Fluc). Our results indicate that all nine vectors can successfully produce mature amiR-Fluc and specifically suppress the expression of Fluc, although the RNAi efficiency in different mammalian cells displays obvious differences. Among these nine vectors, three can efficiently co-express DsRed reporter gene linked with amiR-Fluc cassette. Moreover, the recommended number of concatenated amiRNAs in a multi-amiRNA expression vector should not be more than four, and the relative position of an amiRNA in the multi-amiRNA expression vector has no apparent influence on its RNAi activity. In summary, all these results described here provide valuable information for the rational design and application of amiRNA expression vector.     

Comparison of bovine RNA polymerase III promoters for short hairpin RNA expression

RNA interference (RNAi) mediated by DNA-based expression of short hairpin RNA (shRNA) is a powerful method of sequence-specific gene knockdown. A number of vectors for expression of shRNA have been developed that feature promoters from RNA polymerase III (pol III)-transcribed genes of mouse or human origin. To advance the use of RNAi as a tool for functional genomic research and for future development of specific therapeutics in the bovine species, we have developed shRNA expression vectors that feature novel bovine RNA pol III promoters. We characterized two bovine U6 small nuclear RNA (snRNA) promoters (bU6-2 and bU6-3) and a bovine 7SK snRNA promoter (b7SK). We compared the efficiency of each of these promoters to express shRNA molecules. Promoter activity was measured in the context of RNAi by targeting and suppressing the reporter gene encoding enhanced green fluorescent protein. Results show that the b7SK promoter induced the greatest level of suppression in a range of cell lines. The comparison of these bovine promoters in shRNA expression is an important component for the future development of bovine-specific RNAi-based research.     

RNAi and microRNA: breakthrough technologies for the improvement of plant nutritional value and metabolic engineering

This article raises the complex issue of improving plant nutritional value through metabolic engineering and the potential of using RNAi and micro RNA technologies to overcome this complexity, focusing on a few key examples. It also highlights current knowledge of RNAi and microRNA functions and discusses recent progress in the development of new RNAi vectors and their applications. RNA interference (RNAi) and microRNA (miRNA) are recent breakthrough discoveries in the life sciences recognized by the 2006 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. The importance of these discoveries relates not only to elucidating the fundamental regulatory aspects of gene expression, but also to the tremendous potential of their applications in plants and animals. Here, we review recent applications of RNAi and microRNA for improving the nutritional value of plants, discuss applications of metabolomics technologies in genetic engineering, and provide an update on the related RNAi and microRNA technologies.     

Simple construction of plant RNAi vectors using long oligonucleotides

RNA interference (RNAi) is one of the most important technologies currently available for the analysis of gene function. However, despite the development of various methods, it is still difficult to construct RNAi vectors for plants with the appropriate inverted repeat fragments to produce double-stranded RNA for knockdown experiments. To solve this problem we have developed an easy and simple method to make RNAi constructs using two long oligonucleotides consisting of partially complementary sequences without the need for PCR amplification and multiple cloning steps. CHS RNAi plants generated using this method showed yellow seed color and a decrease in antocyanin content—phenotypes typically observed in CHS loss-of-function mutants. Moreover, we demonstrated specific knockdown of both the PHYA and PHYB genes using a tandem RNAi construct. This method thus represents a powerful tool for gene knockdown in plants.     

Long-term in vivo and in vitro AAV-2-mediated RNA interference in rat retinal ganglion cells and cultured primary neurons

Viral vector-based expression of small interfering RNAs is a promising tool for gene regulation, both in cultured cells and in animal models. In this study, we analysed the ability of adeno-associated virus-2 to function as an RNAi vector in cultured primary hippocampal neurons in vitro and in retinal ganglion cells in vivo. We demonstrate a long-lasting, highly efficient, and specific down-regulation of gene expression in vivo and in vitro by the use of bicistronic vectors. This is the first evidence of a cell type-specific long-term (more than three-month-long) RNAi in the eye. Furthermore, our results constitute the prerequisite for the use of this technique in models of neurodegeneration and neuroregeneration in vivo and in vitro.     

An advanced blue-white screening method for construction of shRNA expression vectors

Short hairpin RNA (shRNA) encoded within an expression vector is an effective tool for exploration of gene function in mammalian cells. Many of the current methods for constructing shRNA expression vectors require cumbersome and time-consuming procedures for identification of the desired recombinants. We have developed a highly efficient and less labor-intensive cloning method that allows the construction of shRNA expression vectors in one day and with minimal effort. This advanced blue-white screening technique was developed by combining the reconstitution of ideal lacO with TA cloning. The DNAs are simply ligated into the destination vectors and, following transformation, a desired recombinant event will give a typical blue colony. In addition, we have used this cloning method for the construction of targeting reporter expression vectors to measure the efficacy of the corresponding shRNA. We constructed 122 functional shRNA expression vectors and sequencing of the positive cloning vectors confirmed a high degree of accuracy. Only three short DNA primers are needed for constructing both shRNA and targeting reporter expression vectors. This advanced blue-white screening system is a powerful tool for the high-throughput assay of RNAi libraries.     

短发夹 RNA 介导 RNA 干扰的时间 和剂量效应研究

用 RNA 干扰 (RNA interference , RNAi) 技术抑制哺乳动物细胞中外源报告基因的表达,以探讨该过程中 RNAi 作用的剂量和时间效应 . 应用 Lipofectamine 2000 将外源报告基因的表达载体与编码短发夹 RNA (short hairpin RNA , shRNA) 的质粒共转染 HEK293H 细胞,观察 shRNA 载体对报告基因的抑制效应 . 转染后, shRNAs 的瞬时表达可特异地抑制细胞内报告基因的表达 . 在共转染后 12 , 24 , 48 , 60 , 72 , 96 h 时检测 EGFP (enhanced green fluorescent protein , EGFP) 基因 mRNA 及蛋白质表达水平,结果显示, EGFP mRNA 及蛋白质表达在 12 h 时略有降低, 24~48 h 时表达逐渐降低, 48~72 h 时降低最明显,其后 EGFP 表达水平逐渐恢复 . 提示该过程中 RNAi 效应呈现由弱到强、又由强到弱的逐渐消逝趋势 . 共转染一系列剂量比例的 EGFP 干扰载体与靶载体的结果表明,在一定剂量范围内, RNA 干扰载体所介导的抑制效应与干扰载体剂量大小有关,当其剂量进一步加大足以抑制外源基因表达时,抑制效应则维持在一“平台期” . 此外,通过 RNAi 抑制 HeLa 细胞、 HEK293 细胞中荧光素酶基因的表达, 荧光素酶活性变化也表现出上述类似的效应 . 这些结果表明,在体外哺乳动物细胞中,基于表达载体的 RNAi 作用呈现剂量和时间依赖性效应 . 这为基于载体表达的 RNAi 技术应用研究提供了一定的理论参考及依据 .     

Lentiviral-RNA-interference system mediating homogenous and monitored level of gene silencing in human embryonic stem cells

Genetic modifications of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) that will efficiently promote stable homogenous gene silencing, and will also allow monitoring of the silencing level, may be invaluable for the study of function of genes in early human embryogenesis, differentiation, and maintenance of pluripotency of hESCs. RNA-mediated interference (RNAi) emerges as a highly efficient tool for specific knockdown of gene expression. Lentiviruses are efficient vectors for the delivery and stable expression of transgenes in hESCs. We sought to develop a lentiviral-RNAi-based system that will efficiently induce homogenous gene silencing and will allow the monitoring of its relative level in hESCs. Dual-promoter lentiviral vectors coexpressing an RNAi cassette and a reporter gene were initially used for efficient and stable induction of heterogeneous levels of gene silencing in polyclonal hESCs. This step was further combined with the isolation of transduced clones with different homogenous levels of gene silencing. The level of silencing in each of the clones correlated and could be monitored by the level of expression of the vector's reporter transgene. Thus, our system allows easy identification of clones with relatively different homogenous levels of gene silencing. Our approach would be valuable for the study of function of genes, in particular those whose role in hESCs biology depends on their level of expression.     

The Cre-<Emphasis Type="Italic">loxP</Emphasis> recombination-based reporter system for plant transcriptional expression studies*

To facilitate the characterization of plant genes, the Cre-loxP site-specific recombination system was adapted to make reporter vectors for plant expression studies. This system allows promoter fragments to be cloned into a small vector (univector) and subsequently recombined in vitro with binary vectors containing different reporter genes precisely at near-perfect efficiency. We have constructed univector-adapted vectors with three reporters, beta-glucuronidase, luciferase, and green fluorescent protein, and a BASTA-resistance gene for selection of plant transformants. Expression in plants using the new system was validated by comparison to conventional reporter vectors. These new vectors are efficient and economical alternatives to the other plant reporter vectors currently available. The royalty-free Cre-loxP system serves as a platform for the future expansion of recombination-based cloning vectors for plant research.     

The effects of spacer sequences on silencing efficiency of plant RNAi vectors

RNA interference (RNAi) has been used to suppress gene expression in various eukaryotic organisms. In plants, RNAi can be induced by introduction of an RNAi vector that transcribes a self-complementary hairpin RNA. Most basic RNAi constructs have an inverted repeat interrupted with a spacer sequence. To test silencing capability of RNAi constructs, we developed an in vivo assay that is based on the RNAi-mediated changes of the α-linolenic acid content in hairy roots. A tobacco endoplasmic reticulum ω-3 fatty acid desaturase (NtFAD3) is the main enzyme for production of α-linolenic acid of root membrane lipids. Tobacco hairy roots transformed with the RNAi vectors against the NtFAD3 gene showed a decrease in α-linolenic acid content. The frequency of RNA silencing was more affected by spacer sequence than by spacer length, at least between 100 and 1800 bp. Since significant amounts of hairpin RNA against the NtFAD3 gene remained in the transgenic plants displaying a weak silencing phenotype, low degree of silencing was attributed to low efficiency of hairpin RNA processing mediated by Dicer-like proteins. Our results show the possibility of producing a broad range of the RNAi-induced silencing phenotypes by replacing the spacer sequence of RNAi construct.     

RNA interference during spermatogenesis in mice

Spermatogenesis consists of complex cellular and developmental processes, such as the mitotic proliferation of spermatogonial stem cells, meiotic division of spermatocytes, and morphogenesis of haploid spermatids. In this study, we show that RNA interference (RNAi) functions throughout spermatogenesis in mice. We first carried out in vivo DNA electroporation of the testis during the first wave of spermatogenesis to enable foreign gene expression in spermatogenic cells at different stages of differentiation. Using prepubertal testes at different ages and differentiation stage-specific promoters, reporter gene expression was predominantly observed in spermatogonia, spermatocytes, and round spermatids. This method was next applied to introduce DNA vectors that express small hairpin RNAs, and the sequence-specific reduction in the reporter gene products was confirmed at each stage of spermatogenesis. RNAi against endogenous Dmc1, which encodes a DNA recombinase that is expressed and functionally required in spermatocytes, led to the same phenotypes observed in null mutant mice. Thus, RNAi is effective in male germ cells during mitosis and meiosis as well as in haploid cells. This experimental system provides a novel tool for the rapid, first-pass assessment of the physiological functions of spermatogenic genes in vivo.     

RNA interference in the moss Physcomitrella patens

The moss Physcomitrella patens performs efficient homologous recombination, which allows for the study of individual gene function by generating gene disruptions. Yet, if the gene of study is essential, gene disruptions cannot be isolated in the predominantly haploid P. patens. Additionally, disruption of a gene does not always generate observable phenotypes due to redundant functions from related genes. However, RNA interference (RNAi) can provide mutants for both of these situations. We show that RNAi disrupts gene expression in P. patens, adding a significant tool for the study of plant gene function. To assay for RNAi in moss, we constructed a line (NLS-4) expressing a nuclearly localized green fluorescent protein (GFP):beta-glucuronidase (GUS) fusion reporter protein. We targeted the reporter protein with two RNAi constructs, GUS-RNAi and GFP-RNAi, expressed transiently by particle bombardment. Transformed protonemal cells are marked by cobombardment with dsRed2, which diffuses between the nucleus and cytoplasm. Cells transformed with control constructs have nuclear/cytoplasmic red fluorescence and nuclear green fluorescence. In cells transformed with GUS-RNAi or GFP-RNAi constructs, the nuclear green fluorescence was reduced on average 9-fold as soon as 48 h after transformation. Moreover, isolated lines of NLS-4 stably transformed with GUS-RNAi construct have silenced nuclear GFP, indicating that RNAi is propagated stably. Thus, RNAi adds a powerful tool for functional analysis of plant genes in moss.