A new 'great-appendage' arthropod from the Lower Cambrian of China and homology of chelicerate chelicerae and raptorial antero-ventral appendages

The uniramous ‘great appendages’ of several arthropods from the Early to Middle Cambrian are a characteristic pair of pre‐oral limbs, which served for prey capture. It has been assumed that the morphological differences between the ‘great‐appendage’ arthropods indicate that raptorial antero‐ventral and anteriorly pointing appendages evolved more than once in arthropod phylogeny. One set of Cambrian ‘great‐appendage’ arthropods has, however, very similar short antero‐ventral appendages with a peduncle of two segments angled against each other (elbowed) and with stout distally or medio‐distally directed spines or long flexible flagellate spines on each of the four distal segments. Moreover, the head appendages of all these forms comprise the ‘great appendages’ and three pairs of biramous limbs. To this set of taxa we can add a new form from the Lower Cambrian Maotianshan Shale of southern China, Haikoucaris ercaiensis n. gen. and n. sp. It is known from three specimens, possibly being little abundant in the faunal community. It can be distinguished from all other taxa by the prominence of the proximal claw segment of its ‘great appendages’ and by only three distal spines (one on each of the distal segments). The similarity of the short, spiky ‘great appendages’ of Haikoucaris with the chelicera of the Chelicerata leads us to hypothesize that this particular type of ‘great appendages’ was the actual precursor of the chelicera. Homeobox gene and developmental data recently demonstrated the homology between the antenna of ateloceratans and the antennula of crustaceans on one side and the chelicera of chelicerates on the other. To this we add palaeontological evidence for the homology between the chelicerae of chelicerates and the ‘short great appendages’ of certain Cambrian arthropods, which leads us to hypothesize that the evolutionary path went from the ‘short great appendages’, by progressive compaction, toward the chelicera with only a two‐spined chela. The new form from China is regarded as the possible latest offshoot, whereas the other ‘great appendages’ arthropods with similar short grasping limbs were derivatives of the stem lineage of the crown‐group Chelicerata. Consequently, the chelicera with a chela with one fixed and one mobile finger is an autapomorphy of the crown group of Chelicerata, whereas a raptorial, but more limb‐like antenna, with more distal spine‐bearing segments, characterized the ground pattern of Chelicerata. Further taxa having ‘great appendages’, including the large Anomalocarididae, are also discussed in the light of their possible affinities to the Chelicerata and possible monophyly of all of these arthropods with raptorial anterior appendages.     

Temporal correspondence of intracranial,cochlear and scalp-recorded human auditory nerve action potentials

Conventional, vertex-ipsilateral ear records (‘A’), as well as 3-channel Lissajous' trajectories (3-CLTs) of auditory brain-stem evoked potentials (ABEPs) were recorded from the scalp simultaneously with tympanic membrane electrocochleograms (‘TME’) and auditory nerve compound action potentials (‘8-AP’) recorded intracranially using a wick electrode on the auditory nerve between the internal auditory meatus and the brain-stem. The recordings were made during surgical procedures exposing the auditory nerve.The peak latency recorded from ‘TME’ corresponded to trajectory amplitude peak ‘a’ of 3-LLT and to peak ‘I’ of the ‘A’ channel ABEP. Peak latency of ‘8-AP’ was slightly longer than the latency of peak ‘II’ of ‘A’ when ‘8-AP’ was recorded from the root entry zone and the same or shorter when recorded from the nerve trunk. ‘8-AP’ peak latency was shorter than trajectory amplitude peak ‘b’ of 3-CLT regardless of where the wick electrode was along the nerve. Peak latencies from all recordings sites clustered into two distinct groups—those that included N1 from ‘TME’, peak ‘I’ of the ‘A’ record and trajectory amplitude peak ‘a’ of 3-CLT, and those that included the negative peak of ‘8-AP’ and trajectory amplitude peak ‘b’ of 3-CLT, as well as peak ‘II’ of the ‘A’ record, when present. In one case, the latency of peak ‘II’ and trajectory amplitude peak ‘b’ was manipulated by changing the conductive properties of the medium surrounding the auditory nerve.These results are consistent with other evidence proposing: (1) the most distal (cochlear) portion of the auditory nerve is the generator of the first ABEP component (‘I’, ‘a’); (2) the proximal auditory nerve is the major contributor to the ‘A’ channel ABEP component ‘II’; (3) in addition to the auditory nerve, more central structures participate in the generation of the 3-CLT ‘b’ component.     

A NEW TITANOSAUR FROM WESTERN SÃO PAULO STATE, UPPER CRETACEOUS BAURU GROUP, SOUTH-EAST BRAZIL

Abstract: Material from a new titanosaur from the Bauru Basin (Bauru Group), Brazil is described and compared with well‐known titanosaurs. Adamantisaurus mezzalirai gen. et sp. nov. is based on six articulated anterior caudal vertebrae and two haemapophyses collected from the Adamantina Formation, which is considered to be Campanian–Maastrichtian? in age. Adamantisaurus mezzalirai is characterized by the following combination of characteristics: anterior caudal vertebrae with straight or slightly backwardly‐projecting neural spines with strongly expanded distal ends, stout prespinal lamina, very wide pre‐ and postzygapophyseal articular facets, and concave postzygapophyseal articular facets on anterior caudal vertebrae. Although our cladistic analysis has produced equivocal results, Adamantisaurus mezzalirai shares with DGM ‘Series B’ (Peirópolis titanosaur) and Aeolosaurus the presence of postzygapophyses with concave articular facets, and shares with DGM ‘Series B’ the presence of laterally expanded neural spines and stout prespinal lamina. Additionally, A. mezzalirai shares with DGM ‘Series’ C (other titanosaur from Peirópolis) the presence of short neural spines.     

Simultaneous chemical and electrical stimulation of labellar taste hairs of the blowfly Calliphora vicina

When recording from the tip of insect taste hairs, responses to chemical stimulation may be influenced by electrical currents, such as the preamplifier's input bias current. The effect of electrical currents on firing frequency of the salt receptor cell to KCl and NaCl stimulation was determined in labellar ‘aboral’ and ‘adoral’ taste hairs of the blowfly Calliphora vicina. Negative currents always decreased spike frequency, whereas positive currents either increased it, or did not change it significantly. Spike frequency changed less than 1% per 5 × 10^?11 A.A consistent picture of the electrophysiology of blowfly taste hairs is given. It includes a distal pore, present in the dendrite-free lumen of the hair. It abandons the concept of a generator current that transmits excitation from the distal, chemoreceptive part of the taste cell dendrite to the action potential generator in or near the taste cell body. The experimental results are interpreted on the basis of this picture. It is concluded that the ‘electrophoretic effect’ of the electrical current is very small. Thus, the measured effect should mainly be due to a ‘direct effect’ of electrical current on electrically excitable structures in the salt receptor cell, particularly in its dendrite.     

The preoral cavity of lower Hymenoptera (Insecta): comparative morphology and phylogenetic significance

The skeletal and muscular morphology of the preoral cavity, including the labrum, hypopharynx and labium, was examined in the imago in representatives of all the ‘symphytan’ families as well as the apocritan families Stephanidae, Megalyridae and Trigonalyidae. Xyelidae have complex modifications for masticating pollen, remarkably similiar to those of primitive Lepidoptera. These modifications, collectively termed the triturating basket complex, include an asymmetrical distal epipharyngeal wall with a microtrichial brush and an enlarged infrabuccal pouch with heavy cuticular armature that interacts with the mandibles during feeding. There were striking structural differences between the two subfamilies of Xyelidae in the ligular region; the reduced glossa and clubshaped paraglossae of Macroxyelinae resembles those of primitive Lepidoptera, while the well developed, flattened glossa and paraglossae in Xyelidae are similiar to those of most other ‘Symphyta’. A putative transformation series, leading from a relatively large labrum with unsclerotised distal epipharyngeal wall lying anterior to the mandibles, as seen in Xyelidae and enthredinoidea, to a small and heavily sclerotised labrum and distal epipharyngeal wall lying posterior to the mandibles, as seen in ‘Siricoidea’, Orussidae and the Apocrita, was revealed. These modifications may be adaptations to enable the adult of the families pupating in wood to emerge from the pupal chamber. The Anaxyelidae, Orussidae and Apocrita have similiar configurations of the glossa and nsertions of the ventral premental adductors. This indicates a close affinity of the Anaxyelidae to Orussidae + Apocrita, a hypothesis that is in conflict with other character systems. The Orussidae and Stephanidae share a unique condition in the development of a pair of large apodemes attached to the labrum; this renders the groundplan state of the labrum in the Apocrita uncertain. Twentyfive characters were defined in an attempt to eludicate the ‘Symphyta’–Apocrita transition. A numerical cladistic analysis of the characters was undertaken, resulting in 522 minimum length trees. The characters are also discussed with reference to a cladogram which resulted from an analysis of the characters derived from the present study and a survey of characters from literature.     

Transmission et expression des caractères ‘ovaire’ et ‘testicule’ dans des clones de Némertes allophéniques produits par multiplication végétative de chimères bipartites mâle/femelle et femelle/mâle chez Lineus sanguineus

Summary

Two stable strains of bilaterally allophenic nemertines were obtained 15 years ago by vegetative multiplication of two bipartite chimeras constructed from symmetrical worm halves of opposite sexes.

From year 1 to 3 of the organismal cloning, the ‘testis’ and ‘ovary’ characteristics differentiated at the onset of the sexual development in respectively male and female sides of allophenic nemertines. Subsequently, unilateral sex reversal by substitution of ovaries for testes regularly occurred as a secondary process.

The 4th year, transient ovotestes were the only type of gonad showing features of masculinity in clones. ‘Pure’ testes did not differentiate.

From year 5 to 9, the ‘ovary' characteristic alone expressed in the two sides of the allophenic worms’ body. Such a transmission of the primary feminization phenotype by organismal cloning showed that the genetic determinant of the testicular differentiation either had been eliminated or was permanently repressed.

From year 10 up to date, the differentiation of the single ‘ovary’ characteristic was again the usual pattern of the gonadogenesis. However, some worms from a sub-clone differentiated a few transient testes in year 10. Although this male-gonad-phenotype reminiscence was discreet, it showed that the testicular determinant had not been eliminated.

The present data support the hypothesis that allophenic worms derived from vegetative multiplication of male-female chimeras retain genetically male and female cells but that interactions between cells of two genetic sexes eventually result in complete repression of the testicular determinant.     

A new species of the deep‐sea copepod genus Scutogerulus (Calanoida: Arietellidae) from the hyperbenthic waters of Okinawa,Japan

A new species of the rare arietellid genus Scutogerulus is described from deep hyperbenthic waters off Okinawa, southwestern Japan. This is the second species of the genus. Phylogenetically significant characteristics known only on the basis of the type species are confirmed by the discovery of the new congener, in particular: (1) the genital system of the female exhibits the most plesiomorphic condition of any arietellid genus; (2) the well developed setae on the endopodal segments of the maxillae and maxillipeds are modified into ‘shield‐like setae’ similar to the ‘button setae’ in another arietelloidean family, the Augaptilidae; (3) the outer distal spine on the first exopodal segment of leg 1 is absent.     

Temporal pattern in foraging behaviour of the Indian pond heron,Ardeola grayii at Ratanpur,Chhattisgarh, India

In avian population, the biological clock is synchronized with the photoperiod as a significant time cue. However, information on feeding behaviour of the Indian Pond Heron, Ardeola grayii at Ratanpur, Chhattisgarh, India is not available. In present study we examined the effect of ‘time of the day’ and ‘photoperiod’ on daytime feeding behaviour of A. grayii at Ratanpur (85º17’E longitude and 22º3’N latitude), Chhattisgarh, India. The different feeding techniques of A. grayii, were recorded for two consecutive days each during long days (May and June 2014) and during short days (December 2014 and January 2015). One-way ANOVA (using SPSS 16.0) was applied to find out the effects of ‘photoperiod’ and ‘time of the day’ on daytime feeding activity with respect to frequency of feeding techniques. The rhythms in daytime feeding activity were evaluated using the Cosinor rhythmometry at 24 h and 12 h. The present study revealed that the A. grayii adopted three major techniques viz., slowly walking, probing and striking on which the slowly walking and striking was popularly used feeding technique as compared to the probing technique during the feeding. Moreover, the A. grayii is found to be bimodal viz., morning and evening type during both of long and short days. Furthermore, bird was more active during short day as compared to the long day.     

Cestodes of birds from the Ivory Coast. Species of the genus Anonchotaenia Cohn, 1990

Five taxa included in the cestode genus Anonchotaenia (Cyclophyllidea, Paruterinidae) have been found in various birds from the Ivory Coast (West Africa). The hosts belong to the families Hirundinidae and Corvidae. A. (Paranonchotaenia) prionopos n. sp., parasitic in Prionops plumata, and A. (P.) malaconoti n. sp, parasitic in Malaconotus blanchoti, are placed in a new subgenus named Paranonchotaenia, which is erected for the Anonchotaenia species showing genital ducts passing between the longitudinal excretory stems. A. (P.) prionopos is characterised by a rather short cirrus-pouch, six to seven testes, and an integumental cavity at the distal extremity of the cirrus-pouch in gravid proglottides. A. (P.) malaconoti differs from the former species mainly by the larger cirrus-pouch and a slightly greater number of testes. The other three species are A. longiovata, parasitic in Hirundo semirufa; A. globata, parasitic in Psadiloprocne obscura (the latter two species are recorded from new hosts and new geographical areas); and Anonchotaenia sp., parasitic in Hirundo rustica. It is assumed that the subgenus A. (Anonchotaenia) is rather a parasite of the Passerida and that the subgenus A. (Paranonchotaenia) tends to be parasitic in the Corvida.This paper is a part of the author's thesis.This paper is a part of the author's thesis.     

Zur Ursache des Hodenabstiegs (Descensus testiculorum) bei Säugetieren1

On the cause of the mammalian descent of the testes (Descensus testiculorum) Two explanations have been offered for the descent of the testes in mammals, both of which are frequently cited in the literature. Moore and co-workers argued that the phylogenetic rise of body temperature caused the translocation of the testes. According to Portmann , the descent of the testes was due to the evolution of the scrotum as a signal. However, both the sensibility of the extra-abdominal testes to temperature elevations and the optical effects of the scrotum can be interpreted as a consequence of testicular descent rather than as its cause. The hypothesis presented in this paper suggests a new adaptive explanation for the descent of the testes in mammals and regards its development as an example of evolutionary compromise. Obvious disadvantages such as reduced protection of the extra-abdominal testes, “perforation” of the inguinal abdominal wall, and an increased loss of heat from the body core have to be outbalanced by a strong selective advantage. This advantage is seen in the development of a completely new, fast mode of locomotion - the gallop. The strong flexions and extensions of the vertebral column during gallop should cause intense fluctuations of intra-abdominal pressure. Fluctuations of intra-abdominal pressure severely impede continuous flow of blood in the abdominal veins. Periodically reduced venous drainage resulting in fluctuations of intra-testicular pressure would impair the process of spermiohistogenesis, which is dependent on an absolutely constant pressure within the testis. Thus, it is the displacement of the pressure sensitive testes out of the abdominal cavity that allows for the evolution of a fast mode of locomotion accompanied by strong fluctuations of intraabdominal pressure. In the course of the phylogenetic translocation of the testes increasing specializations of the testicular blood vessels occur. In mammals possessing a scrotum the return flow of venous blood from the extra-abdominal testes to the abdominal cavity is supported by utilizing the energy of the arterial pulse (‘peripheral arterial pump’). A model for the successive stages of the descent of the testes is illustrated in Figures 7–10. The morphological changes related to the phylogenetic descent of the testes, such as the specialization of the testicular blood vessels, the forming of a cremasteric sack in the inguinal region, and the differentiation of the inguinal or perineal integument into a scrotum can all be interpreted as serving one purpose: they aid in maintaining a constant intra-testicular pressure in spite of increasing fluctuations of intra-abdominal pressure and venous blood flow during the evolution of the gallop. Although the blood vessels of the spermatic chord basically serve the same functions, they show markedly different specializations in Marsupials and Eutherians. This indicates that the descent of the testes has occurred independently, at least, in these two groups. The explanation put forward here postulates a causal relationship between the mode of locomotion and the position of the testes. Mammals possessing testes wnich reside permanently within the abdominal cavity (‘Testiconda’) cannot gallop, whereas mammals with the ability to gallop must have (periodical or permanent) extraabdominal testes (‘Testiphaena’).     

Chemistry of the polysaccharides of the brown seaweed dictyopteris plagiogramma

Laminaran, fucose-containing polysaccharides (‘fucans’) and alginic acid were isolated from Dictyopteris plagiogramma.The laminaran comprised G- and M-chains (ratio 3: 1). The ‘fucans’ were present in four extracts of a four-step sequential extraction procedure and all contained slightly differing proportions of fucose, xylose, galactose, mannose, glucuronic acid residues and half-ester sulphate. Non-reducing chain ends as well as the positions of glycosidic linkages to fucose, xylose and glucuronic acid are the same as previously reported for other ‘fucans’. Galactose and mannose occur mainly as trisubstituted residues with substitution at 0-1, 0-3, 0-4 and at 0-1, 0-3, 0-6, respectively.     

Susceptibility of Cut Rose Flower Cultivars to Infections by Different Isolates of Botrytis cinerea

A method was developed for the inoculation of flowers of cut roses with conidia of Botrytis cinerea. Flower buds were inoculated by spraying of conidial supensions that were ultrasonicated for 10 s. The differences in susceptibility between 8 rose cvs to infections of isolate Bc-33 and the differences in pathogenicity between 14 5. cinerea isolates to cv. ‘Sonia’ were evaluated. Isolates obtained from rose flowers caused higher infection rates than those obtamed from various other hosts. The CVS ‘Madelon’, ‘Melody’ and ‘Sonia’ were found to be highly susceptible, whereas the cvs ‘Caramboie’, ‘Gabriella’, ‘Pasadena’ and ‘Rubinette’ were only slightly susceptible. The lower disease severity in the less susceptible cvs was based on a retardation of the growth of mfection hyphae in the petals, which may have been due to partial resistance. The formation of symptoms is effectuated already by the initial stages in the infection process. Thus, the apparent existing partial resistance to infections of B. cinerea cannot prevent the loss of ornamental value.     

The female postabdomen and genitalia of the basal moth family Heterobathmiidae (Insecta: Lepidoptera): Structure and phylogenetic significance

Female Heterobathmia have the segments behind VIII forming a compact ‘terminal unit’ with a large saddle-shaped dorsal plate and a membranous ventroposterior surface bearing the separate gonopore and anus. While females of most of the nine known species are overall similar, Heterobathmia valvifer is unique amongst lepidopterans in possessing paired ventral appendages (‘ovipositor valves’) arising from the intersegmental groove following segment VIII; evidence from musculature contradicts an interpretation of these appendages structures as ‘true’ ovipositor valves. The ventroposterior wall of the terminal unit in H. valvifer bears paired sclerites, possible homologues of the ‘ventral rods’ in basal Lepidoptera-Glossata. In Heterobathmia megadecella sclerites on paired longitudinal elevations in comparable positions probably are/include homologues of these sclerites. Their similarity with paired sclerotizations in the corresponding region of hydrobiosid caddisflies is noted. A prominent frame-like sclerotization in the genital chamber, located in front of the spermathecal duct origin, is present only in H. megadecella.Putative heterobathmiid autapomorphies include an enlarged ‘subgenital plate’ on venter VIII, absence of apophyses on segment VIII, shortened apophyses on the terminal unit, multilobed accessory glands (but their ‘type 1’ secretory epithelium is plesiomorphic at this level), a conspicuous papilla in the chamber cuticle bearing the opening of the ductus bursae on its apex, and inwards-pointing spines in the ductus bursae. A variably developed thickening of the anterior genital chamber intima is another putative family autapomorphy, while an extreme thickening of the posterior intima seen in Heterobathmia pseuderiocrania is not of general occurrence in heterobathmiids. A sistergroup relationship between Heterobathmiidae and Glossata is supported by their fully developed ‘2-compartment section’ of the spermathecal duct and losses of some likely lepidopteran groundplan muscles.     

Spermiogenesis and sperm ultrastructure of Cyathocephalus truncatus (Pallas, 1781) Kessler, 1868 (Cestoda: Spathebothriidea)

Spermiogenesis and sperm ultrastructure of adult Cyathocephalus truncatus, a member of presumably basal group of "true" cestodes (Eucestoda), have been examined for the first time by using transmission electron microscopy. The process of sperm formation corresponds in basic pattern to that of the Pseudophyllidea. In addition, the 2 pairs of electron-dense attachment zones are present in median cytoplasmic process of C. truncatus. However, mature spermatozoa of C. truncatus differ significantly from those of the pseudophyllideans, especially in the morphology of the proximal and distal spermatozoon extremities. The proximal extremity of the mature spermatozoon lacks a crested body, which is present in more derived cestodes and some pseudophyllideans. The distal end of the mature spermatozoa exhibits different morphology in the gametes from testes and those from receptaculum seminis. New for the Eucestoda is a finding that a lateral cytoplasmic extension creates the distal end of the spermatozoa from testes, resembling sperm of some Monogenea and Digenea. In contrast, the distal extremity of the spermatozoa from receptaculum seminis contains only a nucleus. Despite the above-mentioned peculiarities, the ultrastructural data on sperm/spermiogenesis suggest close relationships of the Spathebothriidea and Pseudophyllidea.     

Intraspecific variation in alkaloid profile of four lupine species with implications for the pea aphid probing behaviour

The alkaloid profile of white lupine Lupinus albus L. cv. ‘Boros’ and ‘Butan’, narrow-leaf lupine L. angustifolius L. cv. ‘Bojar’, ‘Graf’, ‘Karo’, ‘Mirela’, and ‘Sonet’, yellow lupine L. luteus L. cv. ‘Dukat’, ‘Parys’, ‘Perkoz’, and ‘Talar’, and wild species big-leaf lupine L. polyphyllus Lindl. was studied. The pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum Harris probing behaviour was monitored using the electrical penetration graph (EPG) technique.Four types of feeding behaviour were recognized. First, on highly acceptable L. luteus cv. ‘Dukat’, the total and mean duration of probing, time to reach phloem phase, and the duration of the first phloem phase were comparable to those in aphids on control plant Pisum sativum. Second, on partially acceptable L. luteus cv. ‘Talar’, pathway activities were slightly impeded, and the probes were more numerous and slightly shorter than on control plants. The phloem phase occurred sporadically, and feeding was terminated early after a brief period of ingestion. Third, on unpalatable but acceptable L. angustifolius cv. ‘Bojar’ and ‘Sonet’, and L. luteus cv. ‘Parys’ and ‘Perkoz’, the probes were numerous and usually epidermal. The phloem phase occurred rarely, and when it did, it was short and consisted mainly of watery salivation. Finally, on unacceptable L. albus cv. ‘Boros’ and ‘Butan’, L. angustifolius cv. ‘Graf’, ‘Karo’, ‘Mirela’, and L. polyphyllus, total probing time and individual probes were short and phloem phase did not occur.Eighteen alkaloids were identified: one piperidine alkaloid (ammodendrine), one indole (gramine), ten quinolizidine alkaloids (one tricyclic and nine tetracyclic compounds), and six esters. All lupine varieties that contained lupanine, its derivatives and especially their esters appeared to be unacceptable to the pea aphid, independent of the total concentration of any specific lupanine alkaloid. In contrast, sparteine and its derivatives did not seem to affect aphid probing significantly.     

A new species of Sprostoniella Bychowsky and Nagibina, 1967 (Monogenea: Capsalidae) from Chaetodipterus zonatus (Osteichthyes: Ephippidae) in Chamela Bay, Mexico

A new species of Sprostoniella is described from the gills of Chaetodipterus zonatus in Chamela Bay, on the west coast of Mexico. The new species differs from the 2 previously described congeners by having smaller testes each of which is not nearly as long as the ovary. It further differs from the type species, Sprostoniella multitestis, by having a poorly developed pair of accessory sclerites and the cecal diverticula are not confluent posteriorly. The new species also differs from Sprostoniella micrancyra, the other species of the genus, by having a shorter peduncle, the glands of Goto are smaller than the testes and ovary, and by having a slightly different haptoral structure, with 1 pair of hamuli rather than 2 pairs, and 1 central haptoral loculus instead of 2 loculi.     

Species Survival in Fragmented Landscapes: Where are We Now?

We present a brief introduction to current attempts to understand and mitigate the effects of fragmentation on species survival. We provide a short overview of the contributions of empiricists, modellers, and practitioners in this issue of Biodiversity and Conservation, which were initiated during a workshop held in Australia in February 2002 on the topic ‘Species Survival in Fragmented Landscapes: Where are we now?’. These contributions address the themes ‘uncertainty in research and management’, ‘tools for quantifying risk and predicting species sensitivity to fragmentation’, and ‘tools for reassembling fragmented landscapes’. A final contribution provides a synthesis across the contributions and highlights the most important areas for future research on species survival in fragmented landscapes.