Investigations on the photosynthetic sulfur bacterium Chlorobium phaeobacteroides causing seasonal blooms in Lake Kinneret

Between May and December, the annual stratification period in Lake Kinneret, sulfide is formed and accumulates in the hypolimnion. In July-August a large population (up to 10(6) cells/mL) of green, photosynthetic, sulfur bacteria develops at the boundary of the oxidative and reductive zones of the water column lasting for 3--8 weeks. These bacteria were isolated from the lake and identified as Chlorobium phaeobacteroides. Optimal growth conditions included 160 mg S=L-1 and light intensities of 5--30 micron Einstein (micron E) m-2s-1. Glucose and acetate augmented growth when added to the mineral medium. The lowest light intensity which still supported growth was 0.3 micron E m-2s-1 when acetate was present and 1.0 micron E m-2s-1 when no organic substrate was present. Under complete darkness, either with or without organic substrate, the bacteria die. Photosynthetic activity was higher when no organic compound was added to the medium. Uptake of acetate was light-dependent. In the lake the photosynthetic activity of the bacteria is low because of the limited light intensity (0.3 micron E m-2s-1) at the bloom layer. It is suggested that the appearance and the disappearance of the bloom are caused by the influence of the daily internal seiche.     

Ecological significance of acetate assimilation by Chlorobium phaeobacteroides

Abstract The effect of different concentrations of sulfide and sulfur on the assimilation of acetate by Chlorobium phaeobacteroides was investigated in batch and continuous cultures.
In batch cultures the assimilation of acetate strictly depends on the initial concentration of sulfide. In continuous cultures the uptake of acetate depends not only on the reservoir concentration of sulfide but also on the dilution rate. The more severe the limitation of sulfide the higher the incorporation of acetate.
The very efficient uptake of acetate was also observed in batch cultures, but only immediately prior to sulfide depletion. After sulfide depletion, with sulfur still available, the uptake of acetate per mmol reducing power increased even further. This phenomenon, which has been overlooked since growth decreases drastically after sulfide depletion due to incapacity for assimilatory sulfate reduction is of ecological importance in the formation of blooms of brown Chlorobium species.     

Iron-sulfur proteins of the green photosynthetic bacterium Chlorobium.

The iron-sulfur proteins of the green photosynthetic bacterium Chlorobium have been characterized by oxidation-reduction potentiometry in conjunction with low-temperature electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. Chlorobium ferredoxin was the only iron-sulfur protein detected in the soluble fraction; no high-potential iron-sulfur protein was observed. In addition, high-potential iron-sulfur protein was not detected in the chromatophores. Four chromatophore-bound iron-sulfur proteins were detected. One is the "Rieske" type iron-sulfur protein with a g-value of 1.90 in the reduced state; the protein has a midpoint potential of + 160 mV (pH 7.0), and this potential is pH dependent. Three g=1.94 chromatophore-bound iron-sulfur proteins were observed, with midpoint potentials of -25, -175, and about -550 mV. A possible role for the latter iron-sulfur protein in the primary photochemical reaction in Chlorobium is considered.     

Nitrogen Fixation by the Photosynthetic Sulfur Bacterium Chlorobium phaeobacteroides from Lake Kinneret

N₂ fixation by Chlorobium phaeobacteroides from Lake Kinneret was dependent on ammonia concentration and light intensity. In the thermocline of Lake Kinneret, N₂ fixation and photosynthesis were low. It was concluded that the bacteria do not contribute significantly to the organic nitrogen load of the lake.     

Growth kinetics of the photosynthetic bacterium Chlorobium thiosulfatophilum in a fed-batch reactor

Hydrogen sulfide dissolved in water can be converted to elementary sulfur or sulfate by the photosynthetic bacterium Chlorobium thiosulfatophilum. Substrate inhibition occurred at sulfide concentrations above 5.7 mM. Light inhibition was found at average light intensities of 40,000 lux in a sulfide concentration of 5 mM, where no substrate inhibition occurred. Light intensity, the most important growth parameter, was attenuated through both scattering by sulfur particles and absorption by the cells. Average cell and sulfur particle sizes were 1.1 and 9.4 mum, respectively. Cells contributed 10 times as much to the turbidity as sulfur particles of the same weight concentration. The light attenuation factor was mathematically modeled, considering both the absorption and scattering effects based on the Beer-Lambert law and the Rayleigh theory, which were introduced to the cell growth model. Optimal operational conditions relating feed rate vs. light intensity were obtained to suppress the accumulation of sulfate and sulfide and save light energy for 2- and 4-L fed-batch reactors. Light intensity should be greater for the same performance (H(2)S removal rate/unit cell concentration) in larger reactors due to the scaleup effect on light transmission. Knowledge of appropriate growth kinetics in photosynthetic fed-batch reactors was essential to increase feed rate and light intensity and therefore cell growth. A mathematical model was developed that describes the cell growth by considering the light attenuation factor due to scattering and absorption and the crowding effect of the cells. This model was in good agreement with the experimental results. (c) 1992 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Low-temperature energy transfer in FMO trimers from the green photosynthetic bacterium Chlorobium tepidum

The pump-probe kinetics of the slowest spectral equilibrations between inequivalent BChl a Q_y states in FMO trimers from Chlorobium tepidum are decelerated by nearly two orders of magnitude when the temperature is lowered from 300 K to 19 K. The pump-probe anisotropy decays are also markedly slower at 19 K than at 300 K. Singlet-singlet annihilation in FMO trimers is negligible at the laser powers used here. However, reduced temperatures greatly accentuate the probability of singlet-triplet annihilation, due to accumulation of metastable BChl a states under high laser repetition rates.Abbreviations BChl bacteriochlorophyll - FMO Fenna-Matthews-Olson - fwhm full width at half maximum - PB photobleaching - SE stimulated emission     

Optical and structural properties of chlorosomes of the photosynthetic green sulfur bacterium Chlorobium limicola

Isolated chlorosomes of the photosynthetic green sulfur bacterium Chorobium limicola upon cooling to 4 K showed, in addition to the near-infrared absorption band at 753 nm due to bacteriochlorophyll c, a weak band near 800 nm that could be attributed to bacteriochlorophyll a. The emission spectrum showed bands of bacteriochlorophyll c and a at 788 and 828 nm, respectively. The fluorescence excitation spectrum indicated a high efficiency of energy transfer from bacteriochlorophyll c to bacteriochlorophyll a. When all bacteriochlorophyll c absorption had been lost upon storage, no appreciable change in the optical properties of the bacteriochlorophyll a contained in these ‘depleted chlorosomes’ was observed. The fluorescence and absorption spectra of the chlorosomal bacteriochlorophyll a were clearly different from those of the soluble bacteriochlorophyll a protein present in these bacteria. The results provide strong evidence that bacteriochlorophyll a, although present in a small amount, is an integral constituent of the chlorosome. It presumably functions in the transfer of energy from the chlorosome to the photosynthetic membrane; its spectral properties and the orientation of its near-infrared optical transitions as determined by linear dichroism are such as to favor this energy transfer.     

Ecology and Physiology of the Competition for Light Between Chlorobium limicola and Chlorobium phaeobacteroides in Natural Habitats

Accurate studies of the pigment composition and isolation in pure cultures of Chlorobiaceae from samples of eight Spanish lakes show that there are two main coexisting groups of green and brown Chlorobium spp. represented respectively by Chlorobium limicola and Chlorobium phaeobacteroides. Laboratory experiments with pure and mixed cultures of the isolated strains show that light quality plays a selective role on the species composition among Chlorobiaceae. This selection depends on the pigment composition which determines the in vivo absorption spectrum of the cells as well as on their ability to adjust the intracellular concentration of light-harvesting pigments to the spectral distribution and energy of light. Correlation analysis performed with field data resulted in significant, but low, correlation coefficients. Nevertheless, they were consistent with laboratory data showing that brown Chlorobiaceae were dominant in deep layers in meromictic lakes, whereas green Chlorobiaceae dominated in layers nearer the surface or underneath plates of Chromatiaceae. The combination of laboratory and field observations stress the role of biological light filtering in determining the species composition among Chlorobiaceae in lakes.     

Effect of carotenoid deficiency on cells and chlorosomes of Chlorobium phaeobacteroides

The effects of inhibition of carotenoid biosynthesis by 2-hydroxybiphenyl on the photosynthetic growth, pigment composition and chlorosome structure of Chlorobium phaeobacteroides strain CL1401 were examined. At a concentration of 20 micrograms 2-hydroxybiphenyl .ml-1, carotenoid synthesis was largely inhibited (85%), but the photosynthetic growth rate was almost unaffected (mu control = 0.00525 +/- 0.00007 h-1 and mu HBP-treated = 0.00505 +/- 0.0005 h-1). Cells grown in the presence of the inhibitor were 5 microns-70 microns long, while control cells were between 2-5 microns long. Moreover, 2-hydroxybiphenyl-treated cells contained fewer, unevenly distributed chlorosomes per micron of cytoplasmic membrane with an irregular arrangement (2.5 +/- 1.5 vs of 9.1 +/- 1.9). This was concomitant to the 83% decrease in the content of bacteriochlorophyll (BChl) e in 2-hydroxybiphenyl-treated cells. Electron microscopy revealed that the shape of carotenoid-depleted chlorosomes changed from ellipsoidal to spherical, although the mean volume was similar to that of control chlorosomes. SDS-PAGE analysis of the chlorosome polypeptide composition showed that the amount of CsmA protein decreased by 60% in carotenoid-depleted chlorosomes. This was paralleled by a decrease in the baseplate BChl a content. The data suggest that carotenoids are close to the chlorosomal baseplate, where they carry out both structural and photoprotective functions.     

Identification of a thiosulfate utilization gene cluster from the green phototrophic bacterium Chlorobium limicola

Chlorobium is an autotrophic, green phototrophic bacterium which uses reduced sulfur compounds to fix carbon dioxide in the light. The pathways for the oxidation of sulfide, sulfur, and thiosulfate have not been characterized with certainty for any species of bacteria. However, soluble cytochrome c-551 and flavocytochrome c (FCSD) have previously been implicated in the oxidation of thiosulfate and sulfide on the basis of enzyme assays in Chlorobium. We have now made a number of observations relating to the oxidation of reduced sulfur compounds. (1) Western analysis shows that soluble cytochrome c-551 in Chlorobium limicola is regulated by thiosulfate, consistent with a role in the utilization of thiosulfate. (2) A membrane-bound flavocytochrome c-sulfide dehydrogenase (which is normally a soluble protein in other species) is constitutive and not regulated by sulfide as expected for an obligately autotrophic species dependent upon sulfide. (3) We have cloned the cytochrome c-551 gene from C. limicola and have found seven other genes, which are also presumably involved in sulfur metabolism and located near that for cytochrome c-551 (SoxA). These include genes for a flavocytochrome c flavoprotein homologue (SoxF2), a nucleotidase homologue (SoxB), four small proteins (including SoxX, SoxY, and SoxZ), and a thiol-disulfide interchange protein homologue (SoxW). (4) We have established that the constitutively expressed FCSD genes (soxEF1) are located elsewhere in the genome. (5) Through a database search, we have found that the eight thiosulfate utilization genes are clustered in the same order in the Chlorobium tepidum genome (www.tigr.org). Similar thiosulfate utilization gene clusters occur in at least six other bacterial species but may additionally include genes for rhodanese and sulfite dehydrogenase.     

Measurements of Photosynthetic Sulfide Oxidation by Chlorobium Using a Sulfide Ion Selective Electrode

A simple technique is described for using a sulfide sensitiveelectrode to measure the photooxidation of H₂S by a green sulfurbacterium, Chlorobium limicola forma thiosulfatophilum. Sulfidephotooxidation occurred only in the presence of bicarbonateat concentrations greater than 0.1 mM. This implies that therate-limiting carboxylating enzyme for CO₂ fixation in Chlorobiumhas a relatively low affinity for CO₂ compared to ribulose-1,5-biphosphatecarboxylase. Carbonyl cyanide-p-trifluoromethoxyphenyl-hydrazone(FCCP), an uncoupler of photophosphorylation, delays sulfideoxidation for about 15 sec after the onset of illumination at2 µM and is completely inhibitory at 10 µM. Theseeffects can be explained by the ATP requirement for CO₂ fixation.When the photooxidation of H₂S was prevented by 10 µMFCCP, a photoevolution of H₂S was observed. (Received December 24, 1981; Accepted September 10, 1982)     

Excitation Energy Transfer Dynamics and Excited-State Structure in Chlorosomes of Chlorobium phaeobacteroides

The excited-state relaxation within bacteriochlorophyll (BChl) e and a in chlorosomes of Chlorobium phaeobacteroides has been studied by femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy at room temperature. Singlet-singlet annihilation was observed to strongly influence both the isotropic and anisotropic decays. Pump intensities in the order of 10¹¹ photons × pulse⁻¹ × cm⁻² were required to obtain annihilation-free conditions. The most important consequence of applied very low excitation doses is an observation of a subpicosecond process within the BChl e manifold (~200–500 fs), manifesting itself as a rise in the red part of the Q_y absorption band of the BChl e aggregates. The subsequent decay of the kinetics measured in the BChl e region and the corresponding rise in the baseplate BChl a is not single-exponential, and at least two components are necessary to fit the data, corresponding to several BChl e→BChl a transfer steps. Under annihilation-free conditions, the anisotropic kinetics show a generally slow decay within the BChl e band (10–20 ps) whereas it decays more rapidly in the BChl a region (~1 ps). Analysis of the experimental data gives a detailed picture of the overall time evolution of the energy relaxation and energy transfer processes within the chlorosome. The results are interpreted within an exciton model based on the proposed structure.     

Identification of the bacteriochlorophyll homologues of Chlorobium phaeobacteroides strain UdG6053 grown at low light intensity

Detailed APCI LC-MS/MS analysis using an improved HPLC separation reveals the green sulphur bacterium Chlorobium phaeobacteroides strain UdG6053 to contain a wider range of distinct bacteriochlorophyll homologues than has been previously recognised in Chlorobiaceae. The diversity in the homologue distribution is confirmed as arising from differences in the extent of alkylation of the macrocycle and variation in the nature of the esterifying alcohol and a novel series of bacteriochlorophyll structures has been recognised. Homologues containing esterifying alcohols other than farnesol, a number of which have not previously been reported in Chlorobiaceae, are present in high relative abundance. Confirmation of the structures of the esterifying alcohols has been obtained by hydrolysis and analysis by GC-MS. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Structure of a bacteriochlorophyll-protein from the green photosynthetic bacterium Chlorobium limicola: crystallographic evidence for a trimer

Crystals of the bacteriochlorophyll-protein from the green photosynthetic bacterium Chlorobium limicola, previously described by J. M. Olson et al. (1969), have been re-examined by X-ray diffraction. The space group is P6₃, as reported in the earlier work, but revised cell dimensions, $\text{a = b = 112.4 ± 0.4}\text{A}\text{?}\text{, c = 98.4 ± 0.4}\text{A}\text{?}$, were obtained, leading to a unit cell volume one third of that reported previously. Correction of this error leads to the conclusion that the bacteriochlorophyll-protein complex must be a trimer consisting of three identical subunits arranged about a crystallographic symmetry axis. Also a new trigonal crystal form of the bacteriochlorophyll-protein has been obtained, and is consistent only with a molecule composed of three identical or near-identical subunits. Models of the molecular packing for both crystal forms are presented.The molecular weight of the bacteriochlorophyll-protein complex, determined from crystal density measurements, is (1.53 ± 0.23) × 10⁵, and the overall molecular dimensions are about 55 Å along the trimer axis, and 83 Å at right angles to this. There are probably seven bacteriochlorophyll molecules in each subunit.     

The molar extinction coefficient of bacteriochlorophyll e and the pigment stoichiometry in Chlorobium phaeobacteroides

We have determined the molar extinction coefficient of bacteriochlorophyll (BChl) e, the main light-harvesting pigment from brown-coloured photosynthetic sulfur bacteria. The extinction coefficient was determined using pure [Pr,E]BChl e_F isolated by reversed-phase HPLC from crude pigment extracts of Chlorobium (Chl.) phaeobacteroides strain CL1401. The extinction coefficients at the Soret and Q_y bands were determined in four organic solvents. The extinction coefficient of BChl e differs from those of other related Chlorobium chlorophylls (BChl c and BChl d) but is similar to that of chlorophyll b. The determined extinction coefficient was used to calculate the stoichiometric BChl e to BChl a and BChl e to carotenoids ratios in whole cells and isolated chlorosomes from Chl. phaeobacteroides strain CL1401 using the spectrum-reconstruction method (SRCM) described by Naqvi et al. (1997) (Spectrochim Acta A Mol Biomol Spectrosc 53: 2229–2234) . In isolated chlorosomes, BChl a content was ca. 1% of the total BChl content and the stoichiometric ratio of BChl e to carotenoids was 6. In whole cells, however, BChl a content was 3–4%, owing to the presence of BChl a-containing elements, i.e. FMO protein and reaction centre. An average of 5 BChl e molecules per carotenoid was determined in whole cells.     

Mass spectrometrically derived amino acid sequence of thioredoxin from Chlorobium, an evolutionarily prominent photosynthetic bacterium

The amino acid sequence of the thioredoxin isolated from the photosynthetic green sulfur bacterium Chlorobium thiosulfatophilum was determined chiefly by fast atom bombardment mass spectrometry combined with Edman degradation and tandem mass spectrometry. For this purpose, the protein was digested with trypsin, alpha-chymotrypsin, thermolysin, and Staphylococcus aureus protease or combinations thereof. Chemical cleavage with cyanogen bromide was also used alone or in combination with trypsin. The resulting sequence of 108 amino acids is as follows: Ala-Gly- Lys-Tyr-Phe-Glu-Ala-Thr-Asp-Lys-Asn-Phe-Gln- Thr-Glu-Xle-Xle-Asp-Ser-Asp-Lys-(Ala-Val)-Xle- Val-Asp-Phe-Trp-Ala-Ser-Trp-Cys-Gly-(Pro-Cys)- Met-Met-Xle-Gly-Pro-Val-Xle-Glu-Gln-Xle-Ala-Asp- Asp-Tyr-Glu-Gly-Lys-Ala-Xle-Xle-Ala-Lys-Xle-Asn- Val-Asp-Glu-Asn-Pro-Asn-Xle-Ala-Gly-Gln-Tyr-Gly- Xle-Arg-Ser-Xle-Pro-Thr-Met-Xle-Xle-Xle-Ly s- (Gly-Gly-Lys)-Val-Val-Asp-Gln-Met-Val-Gly-Ala- Xle-Pro-Lys-Asn-Met-Xle-Ala-Lys-Lys-Xle-Asp-Glu-His-Il e-Gly (where Xle represents leucine or isoleucine; sequences in parentheses are based on homology considerations). It exhibits less than 53% homology with Escherichia coli thioredoxin.