Zinc,iron, and sodium in hair of deer from areas of contrasting soil productivity

The contribution of soils to animal biology through the soil’s effect on the ecosystem is an important concept in ecology. Zinc, Fe, and Na contents were determined in autumnal collections of hair of fawn white-tailed doe deer (Virginianus odocoileus) from two areas of contrasting soil productivity. The area-weighted soil productivity of one area was 40 compared with 79 for the other area. Hair collections were made in each of 8 consecutive years. The mean difference in dressed weight of fawn does collected from these areas in late autumn over 4 yr amounted to 7.2 kg. Some of this weight difference was presumed to be accounted for by a difference in the level of mineral nutrition because the amount of forage was not limiting in either area. Considering the total sample of 8 yr, the mean contents of Zn were 96 and 98, of Fe were 42 and 45, and of Na were 38 and 36 mg/kg for the respective areas. None of the elements was significantly different each year over the observation period. In 3 yr, at least one of the elements differed, and in 1 yr all three differed. The contents of the elements were not related to April through August precipitation, which was considered a measure of plant-available water thought to be important in mineral absorption by forage vegetation. Zinc was significantly different in 29 of the 56 between-year comparisons within areas; Fe differed in 2 and Na in 14 comparisons. The site of collection of the doe was known within a 2.6-km² area for about 80% of the samples for one of the areas and 90% for the other; therefore, either a soil series or soil association could be identified with the deer. Soils were grouped into two categories in each sampling area; the groupings reflected the intensity of weathering and leaching in one area, and in the other case where soil weathering was not as well developed, substantial soil taxonomic contrast related to grass or deciduous tree vegetation associated with soil development. Only Fe in hair from does collected in the more intensively weathered soil area was significantly different, perhaps reflecting higher levels of plant-available Fe made available to plants because of breakdown of Fe-bearing minerals.     

Spatial distribution and landscape associations of large-antlered deer

For more than a century, the Boone and Crockett Club has kept records of harvest locations for 38 categories of North American big game, which includes measurement details and sizes of enduring characteristics (e.g., antlers, skulls, horns). All white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) entered in the Club records (i.e., record deer) have large antlers because the measurements must meet or exceed a minimum size to qualify for entry. We used the records from the Club to test the hypothesis that the spatial distribution in the harvest of record deer was related to the number of antlered deer harvested, variations in land productivity, soil mineral content, and attributes of land cover for 9 states in the midwestern United States. We used a Bayesian theoretical framework to develop a spatial model that examined the influence of explanatory variables on the number of record deer harvested in each county. In our study area, 3,658 record deer were harvested in 692 of the 856 counties (80.8%). More record deer were harvested in counties that had more high-contrast edges, less contiguous land cover, and greater variation in soil productivity. These results provide information for managers and hunters to better understand the spatial distribution of record deer and factors that are correlated with their distribution. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.     

土壤侵蚀对土壤肥力及土地生物生产力的影响

通过对红壤坡地不同土地利用方式土壤肥力及土地生物生产力的空间分异研究,揭示了土壤侵蚀对土壤肥力和土地生产力的负面影响．即侵蚀导致Ｎ、Ｐ、Ｋ等土壤速效养分含量减少及其在坡面上部的相对贫乏和下部的相对富集;土壤有机质含量降低;土壤机械组成中砂、粉、粘粒比率发生变化,表现为土壤沙化,土地生物生产力下降．     

The extent of lead fragmentation observed in deer culled by sharpshooting

Sharpshooting is a proven management technique to lower white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) densities in areas where hunting is precluded. A donation program that allows for the consumptive use of these culled deer is often necessary to gain public approval for such a program. We culled 40 deer in Indiana using sharpshooting methods (head and neck shot placement) and radiographed the carcasses to determine if lead fragmentation spread throughout the skeletal muscle system. In 30 deer where shot placement was between the cranium and fourth cervical vertebrae, we observed no lead fragments in any thoracic or crural muscle tissue. Of 10 deer where shot placement was between the fifth and seventh cervical vertebrae, 8 deer experienced lead fragments in the extensor spinae muscle. Deer culled with highly frangible bullets via sharpshooting in the cranium or upper cervical spine have minimal risk of experiencing lead fragmentation in the thoracic or crural muscle systems. Deer shot in the lower neck may experience lead fragmentation in the anterior extensor spinae muscle, and up to 40 cm of that muscle should be removed before consumption. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Habitat and weather influence body condition in white-tailed deer,Wisconsin, USA

In temperate and northern ecosystems where there are pronounced seasonal patterns in weather and available energy, there are corresponding patterns of body condition among white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Body condition of white-tailed deer can affect survival and reproduction, which has large repercussions for state-level natural resource agencies that allocate hunting permits. In this study, we investigated how variation in winter weather, spring phenology, habitat composition, and browse quantity affected white-tailed deer body condition across a large spatial scale. Several body condition indicators (e.g., carcass mass, heart fat, antler size) were measured by hunters for 795 deer during September–December 2016–2018 in Wisconsin, USA. Winter severity in the previous year was an unreliable predictor of fall body condition of deer when winters were considered mild or moderate. The timing of spring green-up had a consistent effect on the body condition of all age and sex classes of deer. Earlier spring green-up resulted in heavier fawns and larger antlers among adult males. Region and spring green-up interacted to affect the heart fat of adult females. Earlier springs resulted in adult females in northern and central Wisconsin having a higher probability of heavy heart fat, whereas spring green-up had no effect on adult female heart fat in southern Wisconsin. Effects of habitat differed by age and sex class of deer, and by the body condition metric being evaluated, indicating that there are important physiological differences among age and sex classes of deer that are affected by the environment. Our study demonstrates that the hunting public can contribute large-scale, cost-effective, and quality data to deer monitoring and research projects. It is important that natural resource agencies be able to identify and recruit highly engaged members of the hunting public to ensure project success. The timing of spring green-up can have lasting effects on deer health that can be consistently observed the following fall, which is in contrast to the effects of winter severity that did not appear to persist when previous winters were mild or moderate. We encourage managers in northern or temperate regions to consider measures of spring green-up timing in conjunction with traditional winter severity when making deer population management decisions, such as antlerless tag allocation.     

Effect of male age structure on reproduction in white-tailed deer

Selective harvest regimes that create female-biased sex ratios can potentially lead to delayed breeding, reduced breeding synchrony, reduced productivity, and a female-biased sex ratio of offspring. These resulting changes in breeding behavior and population dynamics have potential to adversely affect population growth. In 2002, Pennsylvania implemented harvest regulation changes that reduced deer density (increased harvest of antlerless deer) and increased the number and age of antlered deer (implemented antler point restriction regulations) that resulted in a less female-biased sex ratio. We monitored date of conception, productivity (embryos/female), and sex ratio of embryos during 1999–2006 to test if timing of breeding occurred earlier and with greater synchrony, if productivity of females increased, and if the sex ratio of offspring would shift towards more males. Deer density decreased 23% and the adult (≥1.5 yr old) sex ratio declined from 2.30 to 1.95 females/male. The ratio of ≥2.5-year-old to 1.5-year-old males shifted towards more older males (1:3.7 in 2002 to 1:1.59 in 2006) and the ≥2.5-year-old male population increased from 41,853 during 1999–2001 to 54,064 by 2006. We found no evidence of any change in the timing or variability of date of conception, productivity, or offspring sex ratio. We conclude that harvest regulation changes implemented in Pennsylvania, USA, were insufficient to affect timing of breeding or population dynamics and that efforts by managers to identify a desired sex ratio or manipulate sex ratios to achieve management goals on a statewide scale will be challenging. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.     

Immobilization of white-tailed deer with telazol,ketamine, and xylazine,and evaluation of antagonists

Telazol–xylazine and ketamine–xylazine are versatile and safe drug combinations that are used frequently for chemical immobilization of cervids. Although neither combination consistently offers rapid induction and recovery, we hypothesized that a combination of Telazol, ketamine, and xylazine (TKX) would provide a safe and effective alternative for immobilization of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). During a 2-stage study, we evaluated the effectiveness of yohimbine and tolazoline as alpha₂-adrenergic antagonists (2005–2006), and characterized the factors that affected chemical immobilization of male deer with a targeted dose of telazol (2.20 mg/kg), ketamine (1.76 mg/kg), and xylazine (0.44 mg/kg), using explosive-charged darts (2007–2010). During the first stage, we randomly assigned deer to antagonist treatments, including a control group that did not receive an antagonist (n = 8), a tolazoline (4 mg/kg) treatment (n = 16), and a yohimbine (0.11 mg/kg) treatment (n = 15). Recovery times were longer (P = 0.0013) for control (150.6 ± 21.7 min) and yohimbine (74.5 ± 13.1 min), compared with tolazoline (12.5 ± 12.3 min). Tolazoline resulted in faster and more complete recovery compared with the frequent incomplete antagonism and ataxia observed with yohimbine. During the second stage, 56 immobilization events (2007–2010) with TKX yielded a mean induction time of 7.8 minutes (SE = 0.44). Repeated-measures analyses indicated that induction and recovery were affected by body weight, with larger males taking longer to become recumbent (P = 0.08), but they recovered more rapidly (P = 0.003) following administration of tolazoline. Physiological parameters we measured under anesthesia were within normal ranges for white-tailed deer; however, initial temperature was higher (β = −0.86) for younger males (P = 0.014). Final physiological parameters were closely related to initial measurements, with rectal temperature being the most preserved (β = 0.90); heart and respiration rate declined (β < 0.60) during anesthesia. Our results indicate that TKX may be useful for chemically immobilizing white-tailed deer, and we recommend tolazoline as an antagonist for xylazine. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.     

Genetic diversity and population structure in urban white-tailed deer

Habitat fragmentation in urban areas has left many species isolated and vulnerable to loss of genetic variation. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), however, thrive in urban areas. We compared genetic diversity and structure among deer in 2 urban metroparks with deer in a fenced reserve and with deer from an open, continuously distributed population to inform urban deer management. If urban deer maintain species' typical matrilineal genetic structure, removal of female groups may effectively reduce local abundance. However, if gene flow in urban areas is high, dispersal may impede efforts to reduce abundance. Although genetic diversity was high and mean relatedness was near zero in all locations, distributions of pairwise relatedness in urban metroparks and the fenced reserve contained greater proportions of closely and distantly related deer than the open locations, likely attributable to matrilineal structure. In addition, deer from the metroparks (approx. 65 km apart) were moderately differentiated (F_st = 0.092) indicating gene flow in urban areas may be less than in other landscapes. Our results indicate that removal of matrilineal groups may reduce local urban deer abundance without inducing immigration from surrounding areas. © The Wildlife Society, 2012     

Resource partitioning between sympatric columbian white-tailed and black-tailed deer in western Oregon

We studied resource partitioning between sympatric populations of Columbian white-tailed (CWTD; Odocoileus virginianus leucurus) and black-tailed (BWTD) deer (O. odocoileus hemionus columbianus) in western Oregon to understand potential mechanisms of coexistence. We used horseback transects to describe spatial distributions, population overlap, and habitat use for both species, and we studied diets with microhistological analysis of fecal samples. Distribution patterns indicated that white-tailed and black-tailed deer maintained spatial separation during most seasons with spatial overlap ranging from 5%–40% seasonally. Coefficients of species association were negative, suggesting a pattern of mutual avoidance. White-tailed deer were more concentrated in the southern portions of the study area, which was characterized by lower elevations, more gradual slopes, and close proximity to streams. Black-tailed deer were more wide ranging and tended to occur in the northern portions of the study area, which had higher elevations and greater topographical variation. Habitat use of different vegetative assemblages was similar between white-tailed and black-tailed deer with overlap ranging from 89%–96% seasonally. White-tailed deer used nearly all habitats available on the study area except those associated with conifers. White-tailed deer used oak-hardwood savanna shrub, open grassland, oak-hardwood savanna, and riparian habitats the most. Black-tailed deer exhibited high use for open grassland and oak-hardwood savanna shrub habitats and lower use of all others. The 2 subspecies also exhibited strong seasonal similarities in diets with overlap ranging from 89% to 95%. White-tailed deer diets were dominated by forbs, shrubs, grasses, and other food sources (e.g., nuts and lichens). Columbian black-tailed deer diets were dominated mostly by forbs and other food sources. Seasonal diet diversity followed similar patterns for both species with the most diverse diets occurring in fall and the least diverse diets in spring. High overlap in habitat use and diets resulted in high trophic overlap (81–85%) between white-tailed and black-tailed deer; however, the low spatial overlap reduced the potential for exploitative competition but may have been indicative of inference competition between the species. Diverse habitat and forage opportunities were available on the study area due to heterogeneous landscape characteristics, which allowed ecological separation between white-tailed and black-tailed deer despite similarities in diets and habitat use. We make several recommendations for management of CWTD, a previously threatened species, based on the results of our study. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

陕西不同区域苹果林土壤水分动态和水分生产力模拟

基于WinEPIC和偏最小二乘回归模型对1981—2016年陕西不同区域成龄苹果林的水分生产力影响因子和土壤水分动态进行比较.结果表明: 研究期间,陕北丘陵沟壑区、渭北残塬区和关中平原区成龄苹果林年均产量分别为16.94、22.62和25.70 t·hm^-2,年均蒸散量分别为511.2、614.9和889.88 mm,水分生产力分别为3.81、3.82和3.24 kg·m^-3.在陕北区和渭北区,林地水分胁迫最严重,年均胁迫天数分别为54.89、28.38 d,关中区的N素胁迫较为剧烈,年均胁迫天数为25.87 d.陕北区和渭北区影响苹果林产量的最大因子是降水量,其标准化回归系数分别为0.274和0.235,但施N量对产量也有较大影响,回归系数分别达0.224和0.232;关中区的最大影响因子为施N量,回归系数为0.335,其次是供水量和施P量,回归系数分别为0.154和0.147.陕北区和渭北区影响苹果林水分生产力的最大因子是降水量,其标准化回归系数分别0.238和0.194;关中区最主要的影响因子为施N量和供水量,回归系数分别为0.182和0.178.在模拟期间,陕北区、渭北区和关中区苹果林地的过耗水总量分别为1152.17、1342.95和1372.42 mm,2~15 m土层土壤有效含水量下降速率分别为63.44、57.08、51.41 mm·a^-1,深层土壤干层出现时间分别为8、13和17年后,干层稳定至11 m深的时间分别为18、21和26年,干燥化严重.不同区域苹果林的管理重心应参考水分生产力的主导因子确定.     

Indirect effects of deer on insect pests and soybean plants

1. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus Zimmermann) and insect pests negatively affect soybean production; however, little is known about how these herbivores potentially interact to affect soybean yield. Previous studies have shown deer browse on non-crop plants affects insect density and insect-mediated leaf damage, which together reduce plant reproductive output. In soybeans, reproductive output is influenced by direct and indirect interactions of different herbivores.
2. Here, we quantified indirect interactions between two groups of herbivores (mammals and insects) and their effects on soybean growth and yield. We examined responses of insect pest communities along a gradient of deer herbivory (29% to 49% browsed stems) in soybean monocultures.
3. Structural equation models showed that deer browse had direct negative effects on soybean plant height and yield. Deer browse indirectly decreased insect-mediated leaf damage by reducing plant height. Deer browse also indirectly increased pest insect abundance through reductions in plant height. Similarly, deer herbivory had an indirect positive effect on leaf carbon: nitrogen ratios through changes in plant height, thereby decreasing leaf nutrition.
4. These results suggest that pest insect abundance may be greater on soybean plants in areas of higher deer browse, but deer browse may reduce insect herbivory through reduced leaf nutrition.

     

Predicting soybean yield in a dry and wet year using a soil productivity index

A soil-based productivity index (PI) has been developed and is being tested as a means of quantitatively assessing potential soil productivity and predicting crop yield. Validation of the PI requires the PI-yield calibration for various soil-crop-climate systems. It is hypothesized that PI predictability and accuracy would be enhanced by inclusion of a soil water balance component. This study aims at developing a sufficiency factor that accounts for dynamics of soil water influenced by weather to improve the PI predictability. Soybeans (Glycine max[L.] Merr.) were grown in 1992 and 1993 on Mexico soil (fine, montmorillonitic, mesic Mollic Endoaqualfs). Test plots had altered A-horizon thicknesses of 0, 12.5, 25, and 37.5 cm over Bt horizons. A range of PI values in the plots resulted due to A-horizon treatment. The PI increased with increasing A-horizon thicknesses or depth to the Bt horizons. The PI was highly correlated with plot yield in 1992, a relatively dry year, in comparison with 1993, a relatively wet year. Inclusion of a factor assessed by daily balance of soil water significantly enhanced PI predictive power by 20% in both years. The factor best improved the PI predictability when based on the number of soil dry-wet cycles for given depth during the growing season. This study illustrates that yearly variation of soil water induced by weather should be considered for assessing crop performance based on soil properties.     

Land use and dispersal influence mortality in white-tailed deer

Restoring male age structure in white-tailed deer populations has become an important objective for many state agencies aimed at improving herd dynamics. Limiting mortality in the yearling (1–2 yr old) age class is a primary consideration, and regional differences in climate, habitat characteristics, hunting regulations, and hunter behavior complicate the understanding of how specific factors influence the risk of mortality. We used Cox proportional hazard modeling to determine the effects of body size, mean distance to road, dispersal behaviors, use of forested land, and use of land open to public hunting on the risk of mortality for a population of radio-collared, yearling males (n = 76) in Sussex County, Delaware, USA. Annual survival averaged 0.55 (95% CI = 0.45–0.68), with harvest accounting for 79% (26/33) of all mortalities. Measurements of body size (chest girth, shoulder height, and total length; cm) influenced dispersal probability but not dispersal distance. The best approximating model for mortality risk included a covariate for landownership, whereby mortality risk increased on public land. Among males who dispersed, longer-distance dispersal was associated with reduced mortality, which contradicts previous research describing dispersal as a high-risk behavior. The effect of landownership on mortality risk has not been previously identified, especially when regulations regarding harvest of yearling males are similar between landownership types. We observed annual survival rates of 0.69 (95% CI = 0.57–0.82) for deer apparently using private land exclusively during the hunting season, and 0.20 (95% CI = 0.11–0.48) for deer that used public land during the hunting season. Survival rates on private land were comparable to those of other regions actively managing male age structure. These results suggest survival of yearling males in the region is influenced by hunter harvest and the risks associated with dispersal may be minimal in areas where harvest pressure is low, although hunter harvest on public land may limit male age structure on a localized scale. © The Wildlife Society, 2019     

Correlates of variation in deer antler stiffness: age, mineral content, intra-antler location, habitat, and phylogeny

To test correlations between the stiffness of deer antler and aspects of cervid ecology, we measured the stiffness (in bending) of antler from white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus ) and compared our results to previous measurements from antlers of other cervid species. Stiffness of antler specimens did not correlate significantly with mineral content or the location within the antler from which specimens were taken in O. virginianus. However, antler stiffness in white-tailed deer decreased significantly between two- and three-year-old bucks, matching the time in O. virginianus life history when males shift from sparring with mostly larger individuals to sparring with mostly smaller individuals. Stiffer antlers may enable younger, smaller bucks to have a more effective lever through which their smaller muscular forces can be transmitted during sparring with older, larger bucks. The stiffnesses we measured for white-tailed deer antler are similar to values measured previously from other members of the odocoileine lineage, which are lower than those previously measured from the antlers of deer living in tropical habitats. However, confidence limits for maximum likelihood reconstructions of the ancestral stiffness of deer antler span the range of high stiffnesses found among tropical deer; furthermore, parsimony-based reconstructions of ancestral antler stiffness are equivocal. Thus, the high antler stiffnesses of tropical deer may reflect the retention of an ancestral condition, rather than adaptation to year-round antler use.