Release of 5'-terminal deoxyribose-phosphate residues from incised abasic sites in DNA by the Escherichia coli RecJ protein.

Excision of deoxyribose-phosphate residues from enzymatically incised abasic sites in double-stranded DNA is required prior to gap-filling and ligation during DNA base excision-repair, and a candidate deoxyribophosphodiesterase (dRpase) activity has been identified in E. coli. This activity is shown here to be a function of the E. coli RecJ protein, previously described as a 5'-->3' single-strand specific DNA exonuclease involved in a recombination pathway and in mismatch repair. Highly purified preparations of dRpase contained 5'-->3' exonuclease activity for single-stranded DNA, and homogeneous RecJ protein purified from an overproducer strain had both 5'-->3' exonuclease and dRpase activity. Moreover, E. coli recJ strains were deficient in dRpase activity. The hydrolytic dRpase function of the RecJ protein requires Mg2+; in contrast, the activity of E. coli Fpg protein, that promotes the liberation of 5'-->3'Rp residues from DNA by beta-elimination, is suppressed by Mg2+. Several other E. coli nucleases, including exonucleases I, III, V, and VII, endonucleases I, III and IV and the 5'-->3' exonuclease function of DNA polymerase I, are unable to act as a dRpase. Nevertheless, E. coli fpg recJ double mutants retain capacity to repair abasic sites in DNA, indicating the presence of a back-up excision function.     

Characterization of DNA glycosylase activity by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry

The DNA of all organisms is persistently damaged by endogenous reactive molecules. Most of the single-base endogenous damage is repaired through the base excision repair (BER) pathway that is initiated by members of the DNA glycosylase family. Although the BER pathway is often considered to proceed through a common abasic site intermediate, emerging evidence indicates that there are likely distinct branches reflected by the multitude of chemically different 3′ and 5′ ends generated at the repair site. In this study, we have applied matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI–TOF–MS) to the analysis of model DNA substrates acted on by recombinant glycosylases. We examine the chemical identity of several possible abasic site and nicked intermediates generated by monofunctional and bifunctional glycosylases. Our results suggest that the intermediate from endoIII/Nth might not be a simple β-elimination product as described previously. On the basis of ¹⁸O incorporation experiments, we propose a new mechanism for the endoIII/Nth family of glycosylases that may resolve several of the previous controversies. We further demonstrate that the use of an array of lesion-containing oligonucleotides can be used to rapidly examine the substrate preferences of a given glycosylase. Some of the lesions examined here can be acted on by more than one glycosylase, resulting in a spectrum of damaged intermediates for each lesion, suggesting that the sequence and coordination of repair activities that act on these lesions may influence the biological outcome of damage repair.     

Second pathway for completion of human DNA base excision-repair: reconstitution with purified proteins and requirement for DNase IV (FEN1).

Two forms of DNA base excision-repair (BER) have been observed: a 'short-patch' BER pathway involving replacement of one nucleotide and a 'long-patch' BER pathway with gap-filling of several nucleotides. The latter mode of repair has been investigated using human cell-free extracts or purified proteins. Correction of a regular abasic site in DNA mainly involves incorporation of a single nucleotide, whereas repair patches of two to six nucleotides in length were found after repair of a reduced or oxidized abasic site. Human AP endonuclease, DNA polymerase beta and a DNA ligase (either III or I) were sufficient for the repair of a regular AP site. In contrast, the structure-specific nuclease DNase IV (FEN1) was essential for repair of a reduced AP site, which occurred through the long-patch BER pathway. DNase IV was required for cleavage of a reaction intermediate generated by template strand displacement during gap-filling. XPG, a related nuclease, could not substitute for DNase IV. The long-patch BER pathway was largely dependent on DNA polymerase beta in cell extracts, but the reaction could be reconstituted with either DNA polymerase beta or delta. Efficient repair of gamma-ray-induced oxidized AP sites in plasmid DNA also required DNase IV. PCNA could promote the Pol beta-dependent long-patch pathway by stimulation of DNase IV.     

RecJ exonuclease: substrates, products and interaction with SSB

The RecJ exonuclease from Escherichia coli degrades single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) in the 5′–3′ direction and participates in homologous recombination and mismatch repair. The experiments described here address RecJ's substrate requirements and reaction products. RecJ complexes on a variety of 5′ single-strand tailed substrates were analyzed by electrophoretic mobility shift in the absence of Mg²⁺ ion required for substrate degradation. RecJ required single-stranded tails of 7 nt or greater for robust binding; addition of Mg²⁺ confirmed that substrates with 5′ tails of 6 nt or less were poor substrates for RecJ exonuclease. RecJ is a processive exonuclease, degrading ~1000 nt after a single binding event to single-strand DNA, and releases mononucleotide products. RecJ is capable of degrading a single-stranded tail up to a double-stranded junction, although products in such reactions were heterogeneous and RecJ showed a limited ability to penetrate the duplex region. RecJ exonuclease was equally potent on 5′ phosphorylated and unphosphorylated ends. Finally, DNA binding and nuclease activity of RecJ was specifically enhanced by the pre-addition of ssDNA-binding protein and we propose that this specific interaction may aid recruitment of RecJ.     

The nature of the 5'-terminus is a major determinant for DNA processing by Schizosaccharomyces pombe Rad2p, a FEN-1 family nuclease

The nuclease activity of FEN-1 is essential for both DNA replication and repair. Intermediate DNA products formed during these processes possess a variety of structures and termini. We have previously demonstrated that the 5′→3′ exonuclease activity of the Schizosaccharomyces pombe FEN-1 protein Rad2p requires a 5′-phosphoryl moiety to efficiently degrade a nick-containing substrate in a reconstituted alternative excision repair system. Here we report the effect of different 5′-terminal moieties of a variety of DNA substrates on Rad2p activity. We also show that Rad2p possesses a 5′→3′ single-stranded exonuclease activity, similar to Saccharomyces cerevisiae Rad27p and phage T5 5′→3′ exonuclease (also a FEN-1 homolog). FEN-1 nucleases have been associated with the base excision repair pathway, specifically processing cleaved abasic sites. Because several enzymes cleave abasic sites through different mechanisms resulting in different 5′-termini, we investigated the ability of Rad2p to process several different types of cleaved abasic sites. With varying efficiency, Rad2p degrades the products of an abasic site cleaved by Escherichia coli endonuclease III and endonuclease IV (prototype AP endonucleases) and S.pombe Uve1p. These results provide important insights into the roles of Rad2p in DNA repair processes in S.pombe.     

A general role of the DNA glycosylase Nth1 in the abasic sites cleavage step of base excision repair in Schizosaccharomyces pombe

One of the most frequent lesions formed in cellular DNA are abasic (apurinic/apyrimidinic, AP) sites that are both cytotoxic and mutagenic, and must be removed efficiently to maintain genetic stability. It is generally believed that the repair of AP sites is initiated by the AP endonucleases; however, an alternative pathway seems to prevail in Schizosaccharomyces pombe. A mutant lacking the DNA glycosylase/AP lyase Nth1 is very sensitive to the alkylating agent methyl methanesulfonate (MMS), suggesting a role for Nth1 in base excision repair (BER) of alkylation damage. Here, we have further evaluated the role of Nth1 and the second putative S.pombe AP endonuclease Apn2, in abasic site repair. The deletion of the apn2 open reading frame dramatically increased the sensitivity of the yeast cells to MMS, also demonstrating that the Apn2 has an important function in the BER pathway. The deletion of nth1 in the apn2 mutant strain partially relieves the MMS sensitivity of the apn2 single mutant, indicating that the Apn2 and Nth1 act in the same pathway for the repair of abasic sites. Analysis of the AP site cleavage in whole cell extracts of wild-type and mutant strains showed that the AP lyase activity of Nth1 represents the major AP site incision activity in vitro. Assays with DNA substrates containing base lesions removed by monofunctional DNA glycosylases Udg and MutY showed that Nth1 will also cleave the abasic sites formed by these enzymes and thus act downstream of these enzymes in the BER pathway. We suggest that the main function of Apn2 in BER is to remove the resulting 3′-blocking termini following AP lyase cleavage by Nth1.     

Crystal Structure of the Vaccinia Virus Uracil-DNA Glycosylase in Complex with DNA

Vaccinia virus polymerase holoenzyme is composed of the DNA polymerase catalytic subunit E9 associated with its heterodimeric co-factor A20·D4 required for processive genome synthesis. Although A20 has no known enzymatic activity, D4 is an active uracil-DNA glycosylase (UNG). The presence of a repair enzyme as a component of the viral replication machinery suggests that, for poxviruses, DNA synthesis and base excision repair is coupled. We present the 2.7 Å crystal structure of the complex formed by D4 and the first 50 amino acids of A20 (D4·A20_1–50) bound to a 10-mer DNA duplex containing an abasic site resulting from the cleavage of a uracil base. Comparison of the viral complex with its human counterpart revealed major divergences in the contacts between protein and DNA and in the enzyme orientation on the DNA. However, the conformation of the dsDNA within both structures is very similar, suggesting a dominant role of the DNA conformation for UNG function. In contrast to human UNG, D4 appears rigid, and we do not observe a conformational change upon DNA binding. We also studied the interaction of D4·A20_1–50 with different DNA oligomers by surface plasmon resonance. D4 binds weakly to nonspecific DNA and to uracil-containing substrates but binds abasic sites with a K_d of <1.4 μm. This second DNA complex structure of a family I UNG gives new insight into the role of D4 as a co-factor of vaccinia virus DNA polymerase and allows a better understanding of the structural determinants required for UNG action.     

Improved measurement of dibenzo[a,l]pyrene-induced abasic sites by the aldehyde-reactive probe assay

Dibenzo[a,l]pyrene (DB[a,l]P) induces abundant amounts of depurinating adducts that spontaneously dissociate to form abasic sites in DNA. However, several previous studies that used the aldehyde-reactive probe (ARP) assay, could not verify abasic site formation by DB[a,l]P. Therefore, we examined whether a modification of the ARP assay would allow greater quantification of abasic sites. A previous study indicated that the abasic site quantification is improved by letting ARP trap the nascent abasic sites in cells, before extracting DNA for the assay. To test whether the addition of ARP to the DB[a,l]P–DNA adduct-forming reaction would improve abasic site quantification, we treated calf thymus DNA (0.625 mg/mL) with DB[a,l]P (80 μM) and 3-methylcholanthrene-treated rat liver microsomes with or without ARP (3 mM). The inclusion of ARP in the adduct-forming reaction resulted in significantly greater detection of abasic sites (62 lesions/10⁶ bp versus 3.7 lesions/10⁶ bp). DB[a,l]P also induces DNA strand breaks. The strand breaks may occur at abasic sites and by other mechanisms, such as oxidative damage. ARP/O-methoxyamine-abasic site conjugates are refractory to strand breakage, however, ARP or O-methoxyamine (3–10 mM) could only partially protect DB[a,l]P-induced DNA degradation, presumably by protecting the abasic sites, but not the other strand breaks. These results suggest that if DNA strand breakages occur at the abasic sites or at bases flanking them, and the fragments are lost during DNA extraction, abasic site estimation could be compromised. To obtain an independent line of evidence for abasic site formation in DB[a,l]P-treated cells, mouse Mβ16 fibroblasts were treated with DB[a,l]P and O-methoxyamine. O-Methoxyamine is known to potentiate cytotoxicity of abasic site-inducing chemicals by forming abasic site conjugates, which partially inhibits their repair. O-Methoxyamine was found to increase DB[a,l]P cytotoxicity in these cells, supporting the idea that DB[a,l]P formed abasic sites. In summary, the inclusion of ARP in the DB[a,l]P–DNA adduct-forming reaction traps and protects the nascent abasic sites, allowing an improved quantification of abasic sites.     

Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase-catalyzed regioselective acylation of nucleosides: Enzyme substrate recognition

Substrate recognition of Thermomyces lanuginosus lipase in the acylation of nucleosides was revealed through rational substrate engineering for the first time. T. lanuginosus lipase displayed higher catalytic activities and excellent 5′-regioselectivities (94–>99%) in the acylation of ribonucleosides 1f–1j as compared to those in the acylation of 2′-deoxynucleosides 1a–1e. The higher reaction rates and excellent 5′-regioselectivities might derive from a favorable hydrogen bonding between the 2′-hydroxyl group of 1f–1j and phenolic hydroxyl group of Tyr21 present in the hydrophilic region of the lipase.     

RecQ and RecJ process blocked replication forks prior to the resumption of replication in UV-irradiated Escherichia coli

The accurate recovery of replication following DNA damage and repair is critical for the maintenance of genomic integrity. In Escherichia coli, the recovery of replication following UV-induced DNA damage is dependent upon several proteins in the recF pathway, including RecF, RecO, and RecR. Two other recF pathway proteins, the RecQ helicase and the RecJ exonuclease, have been shown to affect the sites and frequencies at which illegitimate rearrangements occur following UV-induced DNA damage, suggesting that they also may function during the recovery of replication. We show here that RecQ and RecJ process the nascent DNA at blocked replication forks prior to the resumption of DNA synthesis. The processing involves selective degradation of the nascent lagging DNA strand and it requires both RecQ and RecJ. We suggest that this processing may serve to lengthen the substrate that can be recognized and stabilized by the RecA protein at the replication fork, thereby helping to ensure the accurate recovery of replication after the obstructing lesion has been repaired. Received: 1 June 1999 / Accepted: 28 July 1999     

Analysis of the recJ gene and protein from Deinococcus radiodurans

The mechanism by which double-strand DNA breaks are repaired in the radiation-resistant bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans is not well understood. This organism lacks the RecBCD helicase/nuclease, which processes broken DNA ends in other bacteria. The RecF pathway is an alternative pathway for recombination and DNA repair in E. coli, when RecBCD is absent due to mutation, and D. radiodurans may rely on enzymes of this pathway for double-strand break repair. The RecJ exonuclease is thought to process broken DNA ends for the RecF pathway. We attempted to delete the recJ gene from D. radiodurans, using homologous recombination to replace the gene with a streptomycin-resistance cassette. We were unable to obtain a complete deletion mutant, in which the gene is deleted from all of the chromosome copies in this polyploid organism. Quantitative real-time PCR shows that the heterozygous mutants have a recJ gene copy that is ca. 10–30% that of the wild-type. Mutants with reduced recJ gene copy grow slowly and are more sensitive than wild-type to UV irradiation, gamma irradiation, and hydrogen peroxide. The mutants are as resistant as wild-type to methyl-methanesulfonate. The D. radiodurans RecJ protein was expressed in E. coli and purified under denaturing conditions. The re-folded protein has nuclease activity on single-stranded DNA with specificity similar to that of E. coli RecJ exonuclease.     

PAF-antagonistic bicyclo[3.2.1]octanoid neolignans from leaves of Ocotea macrophylla Kunth. (Lauraceae)

Di-nor-benzofuran neolignan aldehydes, Δ⁷-3,4-methylenedioxy-3′-methoxy-8′,9′-dinor-4′,7-epoxy-8,3′-neolignan-7′-aldehyde (ocophyllal A) 1, Δ⁷-3,4,5,3′-tetramethoxy-8′,9′-dinor-4′,7-epoxy-8,3′-neolignan-7′-aldehyde (ocophyllal B) 2, and macrophyllin-type bicyclo[3.2.1]octanoid neolignans (7R, 8R, 3′S, 4′S, 5′R)-Δ⁸′-4′-hydroxy-5′-methoxy-3,4-methylenedioxy-2′,3′,4′,5′-tetrahydro-2′-oxo-7.3′,8.5′-neolignan (ocophyllol A) 3, (7R, 8R, 3′S, 4′S, 5′R)-Δ⁸′-4′-hydroxy-3,4,5′-trimethoxy-2′,3′,4′,5′-tetrahydro-2′-oxo-7.3′,8.5′-neolignan (ocophyllol B) 4, (7R, 8R, 3′S, 4′S, 5′R)-Δ⁸′-4′-hydroxy-3,4,5,5′-tetramethoxy-2′,3′,4′,5′-tetrahydro-2′-oxo-7.3′,8.5′-neolignan (ocophyllol C) 5, as well as 2′-epi-guianin 6 and (+)-licarin B 7, were isolated and characterized from leaves of Ocotea macrophylla (Lauraceae). The structures and configuration of these compounds were determined by extensive spectroscopic analyses. Inhibition of platelet activating factor (PAF)-induced aggregation of rabbit platelets were tested with neolignans 1–7. Although compound 6 was the most potent PAF-antagonist, compounds 3–5 showed some activity.     

Single‐nucleotide and long‐patch base excision repair of DNA damage in plants

Base excision repair (BER) is a critical pathway in cellular defense against endogenous or exogenous DNA damage. This elaborate multistep process is initiated by DNA glycosylases that excise the damaged base, and continues through the concerted action of additional proteins that finally restore DNA to the unmodified state. BER has been subject to detailed biochemical analysis in bacteria, yeast and animals, mainly through in vitro reproduction of the entire repair reaction in cell‐free extracts. However, an understanding of this repair pathway in plants has consistently lagged behind. We report the extension of BER biochemical analysis to plants, using Arabidopsis cell extracts to monitor repair of DNA base damage in vitro. We have used this system to demonstrate that Arabidopsis cell extracts contain the enzymatic machinery required to completely repair ubiquitous DNA lesions, such as uracil and abasic (AP) sites. Our results reveal that AP sites generated after uracil excision are processed both by AP endonucleases and AP lyases, generating either 5′‐ or 3′‐blocked ends, respectively. We have also found that gap filling and ligation may proceed either through insertion of just one nucleotide (short‐patch BER) or several nucleotides (long‐patch BER). This experimental system should prove useful in the biochemical and genetic dissection of BER in plants, and contribute to provide a broader picture of the evolution and biological relevance of DNA repair pathways.     

Stimulation of human 8-oxoguanine-DNA glycosylase by AP-endonuclease: potential coordination of the initial steps in base excision repair

8-Oxoguanine-DNA glycosylase 1 (OGG1), with intrinsic AP lyase activity, is the major enzyme for repairing 7,8-dihydro-8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG), a critical mutagenic DNA lesion induced by reactive oxygen species. Human OGG1 excised the damaged base from an 8-oxoG·C-containing duplex oligo with a very low apparent k_cat of 0.1 min^–1 at 37°C and cleaved abasic (AP) sites at half the rate, thus leaving abasic sites as the major product. Excision of 8-oxoG by OGG1 alone did not follow Michaelis–Menten kinetics. However, in the presence of a comparable amount of human AP endonuclease (APE1) the specific activity of OGG1 was increased ~5-fold and Michaelis–Menten kinetics were observed. Inactive APE1, at a higher molar ratio, and a bacterial APE (Nfo) similarly enhanced OGG1 activity. The affinity of OGG1 for its product AP·C pair (K_d ~ 2.8 nM) was substantially higher than for its substrate 8-oxoG·C pair (K_d ~ 23.4 nM) and the affinity for its final β-elimination product was much lower (K_d ~ 233 nM). These data, as well as single burst kinetics studies, indicate that the enzyme remains tightly bound to its AP product following base excision and that APE1 prevents its reassociation with its product, thus enhancing OGG1 turnover. These results suggest coordinated functions of OGG1 and APE1, and possibly other enzymes, in the DNA base excision repair pathway.     

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase is required for efficient repair of cytotoxic DNA lesions in Escherichia coli

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is a multifunctional protein with diverse biological functions in human cells. In bacteria, moonlighting GAPDH functions have only been described for the secreted protein in pathogens or probiotics. At the intracellular level, we previously reported the interaction of Escherichia coli GAPDH with phosphoglycolate phosphatase, a protein involved in the metabolism of the DNA repair product 2-phosphoglycolate, thus suggesting a putative role of GAPDH in DNA repair processes. Here, we provide evidence that GAPDH is required for the efficient repair of DNA lesions in E. coli. We show that GAPDH-deficient cells are more sensitive to bleomycin or methyl methanesulfonate. In cells challenged with these genotoxic agents, GAPDH deficiency results in reduced cell viability and filamentous growth. In addition, the gapA knockout mutant accumulates a higher number of spontaneous abasic sites and displays higher spontaneous mutation frequencies than the parental strain. Pull-down experiments in different genetic backgrounds show interaction between GAPDH and enzymes of the base excision repair pathway, namely the AP-endonuclease Endo IV and uracil DNA glycosylase. This finding suggests that GAPDH is a component of a protein complex dedicated to the maintenance of genomic DNA integrity. Our results also show interaction of GAPDH with the single-stranded DNA binding protein. This interaction may recruit GAPDH to the repair sites and implicates GAPDH in DNA repair pathways activated by profuse DNA damage, such as homologous recombination or the SOS response.     

DNA oligonucleotides with A, T, G or C opposite an abasic site: structure and dynamics

Abasic sites are common DNA lesions resulting from spontaneous depurination and excision of damaged nucleobases by DNA repair enzymes. However, the influence of the local sequence context on the structure of the abasic site and ultimately, its recognition and repair, remains elusive. In the present study, duplex DNAs with three different bases (G, C or T) opposite an abasic site have been synthesized in the same sequence context (5′-CCA AAG₆ XA₈C CGG G-3′, where X denotes the abasic site) and characterized by 2D NMR spectroscopy. Studies on a duplex DNA with an A opposite the abasic site in the same sequence has recently been reported [Chen,J., Dupradeau,F.-Y., Case,D.A., Turner,C.J. and Stubbe,J. (2007) Nuclear magnetic resonance structural studies and molecular modeling of duplex DNA containing normal and 4′-oxidized abasic sites. Biochemistry, 46, 3096–3107]. Molecular modeling based on NMR-derived distance and dihedral angle restraints and molecular dynamics calculations have been applied to determine structural models and conformational flexibility of each duplex. The results indicate that all four duplexes adopt an overall B-form conformation with each unpaired base stacked between adjacent bases intrahelically. The conformation around the abasic site is more perturbed when the base opposite to the lesion is a pyrimidine (C or T) than a purine (G or A). In both the former cases, the neighboring base pairs (G6-C21 and A8-T19) are closer to each other than those in B-form DNA. Molecular dynamics simulations reveal that transient H-bond interactions between the unpaired pyrimidine (C20 or T20) and the base 3′ to the abasic site play an important role in perturbing the local conformation. These results provide structural insight into the dynamics of abasic sites that are intrinsically modulated by the bases opposite the abasic site.     

The proofreading 3′→5′ exonuclease activity of DNA polymerases: a kinetic barrier to translesion DNA synthesis

The 3′→5′ exonuclease activity intrinsic to several DNA polymerases plays a primary role in genetic stability; it acts as a first line of defense in correcting DNA polymerase errors. A mismatched basepair at the primer terminus is the preferred substrate for the exonuclease activity over a correct basepair. The efficiency of the exonuclease as a proofreading activity for mispairs containing a DNA lesion varies, however, being dependent upon both the DNA polymerase/exonuclease and the type of DNA lesion. The exonuclease activities intrinsic to the T4 polymerase (family B) and DNA polymerase γ (family A) proofread DNA mispairs opposite endogenous DNA lesions, including alkylation, oxidation, and abasic adducts. However, the exonuclease of the Klenow polymerase cannot discriminate between correct and incorrect bases opposite alkylation and oxidative lesions. DNA damage alters the dynamics of the intramolecular partitioning of DNA substrates between the 3′→5′ exonuclease and polymerase activities. Enzymatic idling at lesions occurs when an exonuclease activity efficiently removes the same base that is preferentially incorporated by the DNA polymerase activity. Thus, the exonuclease activity can also act as a kinetic barrier to translesion synthesis (TLS) by preventing the stable incorporation of bases opposite DNA lesions. Understanding the downstream consequences of exonuclease activity at DNA lesions is necessary for elucidating the mechanisms of translesion synthesis and damage-induced cytotoxicity.     

Isoflavones with unusually modified B-rings and their evaluation as antiproliferative agents

Six novel isoflavone derivatives along with four known isoflavones were isolated from a culture of a highly nickel-resistant strain of Streptomyces mirabilis from a former uranium mining area. The structures of 7-hydroxy-3′,5′-dihydroxyisoflavone (5), 5,7-dihydroxy-3′,5′-dihydroxyisoflavone (6), 2′-hydroxy-3′-methoxygenistein (7), as well as hydroisoflavones A–C (8–10) were elucidated by MS and NMR analyses. Compounds 8–10 feature yet unprecedented types of non-aromatic, hydroxylated B rings, which result from plant isoflavone biotransformation. All new compounds display weak cytotoxic but potent antiproliferative activities. The anti-oestrogenic properties of 8 against MCF-7 human breast cancer cell line (GI₅₀: 6 μM) is even higher than the reference compound genistein.     

In vitro eradication of abasic site-mediated DNA–peptide/protein cross-links by Escherichia coli long-patch base excision repair

Apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP or abasic) sites are among the most abundant DNA lesions. Numerous proteins within different organisms ranging from bacteria to human have been demonstrated to react with AP sites to form covalent Schiff base DNA–protein cross-links (DPCs). These DPCs are unstable due to their spontaneous hydrolysis, but the half-lives of these cross-links can be as long as several hours. Such long-lived DPCs are extremely toxic due to their large sizes, which physically block DNA replication. Therefore, these adducts must be promptly eradicated to maintain genome integrity. Herein, we used in vitro reconstitution experiments with chemically synthesized, stable, and site-specific Schiff base AP-peptide/protein cross-link analogs to demonstrate for the first time that this type of DPC can be repaired by Escherichia coli (E. coli) long-patch base excision repair. We demonstrated that the repair process requires a minimum of three enzymes and five consecutive steps, including: (1) 5′-DNA strand incision of the DPC by endonuclease IV; (2 to 4) strand-displacement DNA synthesis, removal of the 5′-deoxyribose phosphate-peptide/protein adduct-containing flap, and gap-filling DNA synthesis by DNA polymerase I; and (5) strand ligation by a ligase. We further demonstrated that endonuclease IV plays a major role in incising an AP-peptide cross-link within E. coli cell extracts. We also report that eradicating model AP-protein (11.2–36.1 kDa) DPCs is less efficient than that of an AP-peptide_10mer cross-link, supporting the emerging model that proteolysis is likely required for efficient DPC repair.     

Co-ordination of DNA single strand break repair

DNA damaging agents generated as a consequence of endogenous metabolism or via exogenous factors can produce a wide variety of lesions in DNA. These include base damage, sites of base loss (abasic sites) and single strand breaks (SSBs). Moreover, reactive oxygen species (ROS) create more diversity by generating SSBs containing modified 3'-ends, such as those containing phosphate, phosphoglycolate and oxidative base damage. Ionising radiation also generates DNA base lesions in close proximity to SSBs. The majority of these non-bulky lesions in DNA are repaired by proteins involved in the base excision repair (BER) pathway. It is apparent that due to the complexity of these lesions, they may require individual subsets of BER proteins for repair. However, the mechanism unravelling the required enzymes and directing damage-specific repair of SSBs is unclear. In this review we will discuss recent studies that identify new enzymes and activities involved in the repair of SSBs containing modified ends and in particular outline the possible mechanisms involved in the co-ordinated repair of "damaged" SSBs that can not be resealed directly and require preliminary processing.