Fate of translocated wild-caught and captive-reared stone martens (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Martes foina</Emphasis>)

We radio-tracked one urban wild-caught and four orphaned captive-reared stone martens (Martes foina) after translocation to novel habitats. The wild-caught marten rapidly returned to urban habitat but died 7 days after release. The captive-reared martens survived >130 days after release. An initial period of extensive movements was followed by decreased activity. Captive-reared martens apparently adapted well to living in the wild. However, we recommend that exclusion of martens from den sites should be used to avoid having to resort to the capture and translocation of problem martens.     

There is no place like home: high homing rate and increased mortality after translocation of a small mammal

Animal translocation is a popular tool in wildlife management. It is frequently used to solve human–animal conflicts and recently has been applied as a mitigation tool when animals inhabit land desired for development. However, its success is uncertain and involves risks. In order to provide useful information to wildlife managers about the effect of translocation distance on animal movement behavior and survival, we translocated 40 Long-haired field mice (Abrothrix longipilis) at different distances from their territories (0–1,300 m) in central Chile and recorded the location and survival of each mouse over 3 days. Translocated animals showed low release site fidelity and traveled two- to four-fold longer distances than the nontranslocated group. Only mice translocated at shorter distances (100 m) oriented their movement toward their origin site and had a high probability of homing (80 %). There were threshold distances from after which homing and traveling strongly decreased. All individuals released close to their capture site (≤100 m) remained alive, while mortality reached 22 % at longer translocation distances, principally as a result of fighting between rodents. Therefore, long translocation distances prevented short-term homing and decreased traveled distances (a desirable outcome), but risks associated with conspecific encounters need to be avoided. Because mice showed a high motivation to explore surroundings, it is advisable to release animals in sites with alternative places to colonize. Our results emphasize the need for a strong justification in wildlife translocation projects and the development of alternative techniques to improve animal welfare and conservation.     

Is electric fencing an efficient and animal-friendly tool to prevent stone martens from entering buildings?

Wildlife such as stone martens Martes foina have adapted to live in urban areas, which are spreading worldwide. Conflicts with humans can arise when martens enter buildings and cause serious damage to roof insulation. Therefore, there is an increasing demand for measures that will reduce such human–wildlife conflicts. Data we collected from a big insurance company regarding the costs of repairs of damages caused by martens revealed an estimate of 655 annual cases per Mio inhabitants and pay-outs of approximately €200,000 per year from 2002 to 2006. The data collected from pest control organisations showed an increase of damage claims from around 20 up to 150 cases per year in the last 20 years. In an experimental case study, the analysis of video recordings (26 nights) and long-term bait controls (103 nights) showed that installed electric wires and woven wire mesh prevented martens from entering a building they previously used intensively. Our results suggest that electric fencing could be a simple, short-termed measure to exclude martens from buildings before definitively sealing the openings. Electric fencing needs further quantitative and qualitative evaluation at different study sites to develop an animal-friendly, practical and cost-effective tool that prevents martens from causing damage to roof insulations.     

Stone martens (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Martes foina</Emphasis>) and cars: investigation of a common human–wildlife conflict

Stone martens (Martes foina) commonly climb into car engine compartments, where they may tear up heat and noise insulation mats or bite into rubber or plastic components. This brings martens into conflict with humans. Although various hypotheses have been suggested as to why martens damage cars once inside them, it is not known what makes martens associate with cars in the first place. We radio-tracked 13 urban stone martens over a 2-year period in Luxembourg to determine the context in which martens visit parked cars at night. Martens associated with cars most frequently in spring and early summer, when their activity on roads was highest and when they systematically patrolled and scent-marked cars. Most visits to cars were of short duration. We suggest, therefore, that the main factor promoting marten–car contact is territorial behaviour, rather than either the thermal benefits to be gained from proximity to recently used engines or the need for a safe environment for resting, hiding or food consumption.     

Behavior of captive-raised rattlesnakes (Crotalus enyo) as a function of rearing conditions

Two litters of rattlesnakes (Crotalus enyo; n = 6 per litter) were raised in large cages and small plastic boxes, respectively. No significant differences in exploration of a novel environment were observed between the litters, or between either of them and a group of wild-caught C. enyo, suggesting that the common practice of rearing baby snakes in small cages has no debilitating consequences on these measures. In the absence of differences between the litters, the two samples were pooled and additional analyses revealed the existence of reliable individual variation. Experiment 2 compared the two litters and the wild-caught snakes on measures of prey-directed behavior. The two captive-reared litters did not differ, but both exhibited lower levels of strike-induced chemosensory searching than did wild-caught snakes.     

The impact of transportation and translocation on dispersal behaviour in the invasive cane toad

Biological invasions transport organisms to novel environments; but how does the translocation process influence movement patterns of the invader? Plausibly, the stress of encountering a novel environment, or of the transport process, might induce rapid dispersal from the release site—potentially enhancing (or reducing) invader success and spread. We investigated the effect of transportation and release to novel environments on dispersal-relevant traits of one of the world’s most notorious invaders, the cane toad (Rhinella marina). We collected toads in northern New South Wales from heath and woodland habitats, manipulated the level of transport stress and either returned toads to their exact collection point (residents) or reciprocally translocated them to a novel site. Both translocation and the level of transport stress drastically altered toad dispersal rates for at least 5 days post-release. Translocated toads (depending on their level of transport stress and release habitat) moved on average two to five times further per day (mean range 67–148 m) than did residents (mean range 22–34 m). Translocated toads also moved on more days, and moved further from their release point than did resident toads, but did not move in straighter lines. A higher level of transport stress (simulating long-distance translocation) had no significant effect on movements of resident toads but amplified the dispersal of translocated toads only when released into woodland habitat. These behavioural shifts induced by translocation and transportation may affect an invader’s ability to colonise novel sites, and need to be incorporated into plans for invader control.     

Postrelease movement and habitat selection of translocated pine martens Martes martes

Monitoring postrelease establishment and movement of animals is important in evaluating conservation translocations. We translocated 39 wild pine martens Martes martes (19 females, 20 males) from Scotland to Wales. We released them into forested areas with no conspecifics in 2015, followed by a second release in 2016, alongside the previously released animals. We used radio‐tracking to describe postrelease movement and habitat selection. Six martens (15%) were not re‐encountered during the tracking period, of which four undertook long‐distance dispersal. For the remaining individuals, we characterized two phases of movement, “exploration” followed by “settlement,” that differed between releases. In the first release, martens remained in exploration phase for a mean of 14.5 days (SE = 3.9 days) and settled at a mean distance of 8.7 km (SE = 1.8 km) from release sites, whereas martens released in year two, alongside resident conspecifics, traveled away from release sites at a faster rate, settling sooner, at a mean of 6.6 days (SE = 1.8 days), but further, at a mean distance of 14.0 km (SE = 1.7 km) from release sites. Animals released in year one did not exhibit habitat preferences overall but within forests they favored recently felled areas, whereas animals released in year two showed strong selection for forested habitat but did not discriminate between forest types. The presence of conspecifics appeared influential for settlement and site fidelity of translocated martens and was associated with more rapid but more distant dispersal of the later cohort. Releases of animals in close proximity appeared to promote site fidelity and rapid establishment of ranges in the recipient environment.     

A novel method for captive rearing and translocation of juvenile common loons

Common loons (Gavia immer) are diving waterbirds that are particularly challenging to keep in captivity due to their specific behavioral and physiologic needs, special housing requirements, and susceptibility to stress-related disease. We report a novel method for housing and captive rearing common loon chicks that was developed as part of the first-ever loon translocation effort in southeast Massachusetts, from 2015 to 2017. Thirteen loon chicks were reared in aquatic pens in a natural lake environment, utilizing noninvasive feeding and monitoring techniques that avoided human habituation. Chicks were reared in aquatic pens for 16–28 days before being released onto the lake. All chicks remained clinically normal and were monitored on the lake for up to 4 months following release. At least four of the chicks were subsequently confirmed to have survived to adulthood when they returned to the area in breeding plumage two to 3 years following release. Two of these confirmed adults displayed prolonged territorial pair behavior together, and this is an encouraging early sign that captive-reared individuals may form successful breeding pairs in the future. Because most immature loons remain on the ocean until at least 3 years of age, we expect additional captive-reared loons to return to the release area in subsequent years. These husbandry techniques could be applied to other loon and diving bird species that are notoriously difficult to house in captivity. The novel feeding techniques described here could also be adapted for loon chicks being reared in pools or other traditional captive settings.     

Socio-spatial organization of urban stone martens

Stone martens Martes foina are common occupants of urban environments across continental Europe. We predicted that like other 'urban adapters', urban stone martens should exhibit smaller home ranges, more extensive home-range overlap and higher population densities than their rural counterparts. We radio-tracked 13 stone martens (10 females, three males) in two towns in southern Luxembourg during a 2-year period, in order to investigate nocturnal ranging behaviour. All martens maintained stable, year-round territories almost wholly within the urban perimeter of the respective study towns. Socio-spatial organization was based on intra-sexual territoriality. Territories (100% minimum convex polygon) were small in size (males: 112.6±24.8 ha; females: 37.0±22.2 ha) and population densities moderately high (4.7–5.8 adults km⁻²) by comparison with previous studies of rural populations. We conclude that although stone martens are clearly well adapted to urban conditions, urbanization has surprisingly little impact on their socio-spatial organization by comparison with its effects on other mesocarnivores. This apparent inflexibility in the spacing patterns of stone martens lends support to the view that spacing in martens ( Martes spp.) is a predominantly phylogenetic trait that is under limited environmental influence.     

Comparing Survival and Movements of Non-Urban and Urban Translocated Mule Deer

In many parts of North America, deer (Odocoileus spp.) have adapted to live in urban areas and are a source of negative human-wildlife interactions. Management strategies such as culling, immunocontraceptives, sterilization, and translocation have been implemented to manage urban deer populations. In the East Kootenay region of southern British Columbia, urban mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) populations have been increasing, whereas non-urban mule deer populations have decreased. In 2014 a non-urban mule deer research project began in the area and in 2016 an urban deer translocation trial was approved in the same region. We fit 121 non-urban deer with global positioning system (GPS)-collars and translocated 135 urban mule deer to non-urban areas, of which 57 were fit with GPS-collars. We tested if annual survival between urban translocated (i.e., translocated) and non-urban deer differed, and if translocated deer survival increased in subsequent years after translocation. We also determined if age, body condition, release site, capture area and distance between capture and release sites affected translocated deer survival. We evaluated if translocated deer exhibited different movement behaviors than non-urban deer by comparing probability of migration, maximum net displacement, home range size, and probability of crossing a paved road. Finally, during our study we observed some translocated deer return to a municipal area after translocation and assessed if any covariates such as age, release site, or capture city could help predict this behavior. Annual survival of translocated deer was 0.48 and was significantly lower than survival of non-urban deer, which was 0.77. We observed 20 of 57 collared translocated deer return to a town after translocation. Translocated deer had larger net displacements and larger seasonal home range sizes than non-urban deer. Non-urban deer were more likely to migrate than translocated deer and crossed fewer paved roads than translocated deer. The management effectiveness of translocation to reduce urban deer densities is mixed because annual survival of translocated deer may be lower than may be acceptable to some stakeholders. Additionally, some translocated deer returned to an urban area, and the large distances traveled by deer after translocation may unintentionally spread disease. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.     

Snow tracking reveals different foraging patterns of red foxes and pine martens

Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) shares similar prey preferences and co-occurs with several other carnivores, and is together with pine marten (Martes martes), the most common mesocarnivore in the northern boreal forest. Voles are important prey for both species, but it is unclear to what extent they compete for the same food resources in winter. Here, we use 2139 km and 533 km of meticulous snow tracking of red foxes and pine martens to evaluate their food niches. We measured hunting and digging behaviour, whether successful or not, and the effect of snow depth and temperature. Pine martens were restricted to forested habitats, whereas red foxes used a wide range of habitats. Red foxes were found to dig more often than pine martens, 0.67 vs. 0.39 digging events per kilometre. Hunting was less common and similar in both species, about 0.1 hunting event per kilometre. Pine martens were more efficient in hunting and finding food remains compared to red foxes. Increasing snow depth reduced hunting success and also reduced dig success of red foxes. Food niche overlap was small. Red foxes used mostly voles and carrion remains of ungulates, whereas pine martens used cached eggs and small birds. We suggest that caching eggs is an important strategy for pine martens to survive winter in northern latitudes. Snow depth was important for capturing voles, and thick snow cover appeared to mask the effect of vole peaks. Intensified land use, as clear-cutting and leaving slaughter remains from harvest, will benefit red foxes on the expense of pine martens. The ongoing climate change with warmer winters and less snow will likely further benefit the red fox.     

Den preferences and denning behaviour in urban stone martens (Martes foina)

Stone martens (Martes foina) occur in urban environments in many parts of continental Europe, where they cause a nuisance by denning in inhabited houses. We radio tracked 13 stone martens (10 females, 3 males) in two towns in southern Luxembourg during a 2-year period, in order to investigate den preferences and patterns of den use. We predicted that urban martens would make more use of buildings and less use of natural den sites than do their rural counterparts. All martens used multiple den sites but use was concentrated on a subset of these, between which individuals shifted frequently. Denning was almost exclusively in buildings (97.1%), with use of inhabited buildings being the highest (41.9%) recorded to date for this species. Inhabited buildings were used more extensively in winter, presumably because they were warmer and better insulated. We conclude that stone martens can successfully adapt their denning behaviour to an urban environment and that they use anthropogenic den sites more often than do most other mesocarnivore urban adapters.     

Translocating a threatened New Zealand giant orthopteran, Deinacrida sp. (Stenopelmatidae): some lessons

Experiences from the first efforts to translocate an orthopteran, the Mahoenui giant weta (Deinacrida sp.), are described. Some of the problems included monitoring at low densities, transferred weta dispersing and coordinating the different components of the translocation programme over a long period of time. Options for translocation are discussed, such as using wild-caught or captive-bred animals. Techniques of release, such as immediate release or using an enclosure on the release site, allowing transferees to breed, then releasing their progeny, are also discussed. It was concluded that the latter was probably the most effective approach to translocation.     

Genetic diversity and species identification in the endangered white abalone (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Haliotis sorenseni</Emphasis>)

In 2001, the white abalone Haliotis sorenseni became the first marine invertebrate in United States waters to receive federal protection as an endangered species. Prior to the endangered species listing, 20 abalone were collected as potential broodstock for a captive rearing program. Using DNA from these animals, we have developed genetic markers, including five nuclear microsatellite loci and partial sequences of one nuclear (VERL) and two mitochondrial (COI and CytB) genes, to assess genetic variability in the species, aid in species identification, and potentially track the success of future outplanting of captive-reared animals. All five microsatellite loci were polymorphic and followed expectations of simple Mendelian inheritance in laboratory crosses. Each of the wild-caught adult abalone exhibited a unique composite microsatellite genotype, suggesting that significant genetic variation remains in natural populations. A combination of nuclear and mitochondrial gene sequencing demonstrated that one of the original wild-caught animals was, in fact, not a white abalone, but H. kamtschatkana (possibly subspecies assimilis). Similarly, another animal of uncertain identity accidentally collected by dredging was also shown to be H. kamtschatkana. Inclusion of these two animals as broodstock could have resulted in unintentional hybridizations detrimental to the white abalone recovery program. Molecular genetic identifications will be useful both in preventing broodstock contamination and as markers for future restocking operations.     

Widespread distribution of Pine martens (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Martes martes</Emphasis>) in a fragmented suburban landscape

Pine martens (Martes martes) are forest specialists that depend either on large patches of forest or on the absence of barriers between smaller forest patches. It thus seems likely that they would disappear from landscapes with heavily fragmented forests and a high density of presumptive barriers that are typical of Central Europe. We studied the distribution of pine martens in a suburban landscape characterised by fragmented forests and a high density of presumptive barriers (e.g. housing areas, roads). We assessed the presence of pine martens using camera traps in a sample of 170 1?×?1-km quadrats and used occupancy modelling to account for imperfect detection. We found an almost complete and countrywide distribution of the pine marten. Larger roads and housing areas were not negatively related to its current distribution as we predicted. We conclude that pine martens are capable to survive in some heavily fragmented landscapes.     

Sustained-Release Delivery of Octreotide from Biodegradable Polymeric Microspheres

The study reports on the drug release behavior of a potent synthetic somatostatin analogue, octreotide acetate, from biocompatible and biodegradable microspheres composed of poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) following a single intramuscular depot injection. The serum octreotide levels of three Oakwood Laboratories formulations and one Sandostatin LAR^® formulation were compared. Three formulations of octreotide acetate-loaded PLGA microspheres were prepared by a solvent extraction and evaporation procedure using PLGA polymers with different molecular weights. The in vivo drug release study was conducted in male Sprague–Dawley rats. Blood samples were taken at predetermined time points for up to 70 days. Drug serum concentrations were quantified using a radioimmunoassay procedure consisting of radiolabeled octreotide. The three octreotide PLGA microsphere formulations and Sandostatin LAR^® all showed a two-phase drug release profile (i.e., bimodal). The peak serum drug concentration of octreotide was reached in 30 min for all formulations followed by a decline after 6 h. Following this initial burst and decline, a second-release phase occurred after 3 days. This second-release phase exhibited sustained-release behavior, as the drug serum levels were discernible between days 7 and 42. Using pharmacokinetic computer simulations, it was estimated that the steady-state octreotide serum drug levels would be predicted to fall in the range of 40–130 pg/10 μL and 20–100 pg/10 μL following repeat dosing of the Oakwood formulations and Sandostatin LAR^® every 28 days and every 42 days at a dose of 3 mg/rat, respectively.     

Summarizing US Wildlife Trade with an Eye Toward Assessing the Risk of Infectious Disease Introduction

The aim of this study was to characterize the role of the USA in the global exchange of wildlife and describe high volume trade with an eye toward prioritizing health risk assessment questions for further analysis. Here we summarize nearly 14 years (2000–2013) of the most comprehensive data available (USFWS LEMIS system), involving 11 billion individual specimens and an additional 977 million kilograms of wildlife. The majority of shipments contained mammals (27%), while the majority of specimens imported were shells (57%) and tropical fish (25%). Most imports were facilitated by the aquatic and pet industry, resulting in one-third of all shipments containing live animals. The importer reported origin of wildlife was 77.7% wild-caught and 17.7% captive-reared. Indonesia was the leading exporter of legal shipments, while Mexico was the leading source reported for illegal shipments. At the specimen level, China was the leading exporter of legal and illegal wildlife imports. The number of annual declared shipments doubled during the period examined, illustrating continually increasing demand, which reinforces the need to scale up capacity for border inspections, risk management protocols and disease surveillance. Most regulatory oversight of wildlife trade is aimed at conservation, rather than prevention of disease introduction.     

Blood clearance and occupational exposure for <Superscript>177</Superscript>Lu-DOTATATE compared to <Superscript>177</Superscript>Lu-PSMA radionuclide therapy

The main target of this work is to examine blood clearance and external exposure for ¹⁷⁷Lu-DOTATATE compared with new emerging ¹⁷⁷Lu-PSMA therapy. Blood clearance and radiation exposure of 31 patients treated with 5.5?±?1.1 GBq ¹⁷⁷Lu-DOTATATE were compared to those of 23 patients treated with 7.4 GBq ¹⁷⁷Lu-PSMA. Dose rates were measured at several distances and time points up to 120 h after treatment. Blood samples were collected conjunctively after infusion. Caregiver’s cumulative dose was measured by means of an OSL (optically stimulated luminescence) dosimeter for 4–5 days and medical staff’s dose was also estimated using electronic personal dosimeters. Finger dose was determined via ring TLD (Thermoluminescence Dosimeter) for radiopharmacists and nurses. Dose rates due to ¹⁷⁷Lu-DOTATATE at a distance of 1 m, 4 h and 6 h after infusion, were 3.0?±?2.8 and 2?±?1.9 µSv/(h GBq), respectively, while those due to ¹⁷⁷Lu-PSMA were 3.1?±?0.8 and 2.2?±?0.9 µSv/(h GBq). Total effective dose of 17 caregivers was 100–200 µSv for ¹⁷⁷Lu-DOTATATE therapy. Mean effective doses to nurses and radiopharmacists were 5 and 4 µSv per patient, respectively, while those for physicists and physicians were 2 µSv per patient. For ¹⁷⁷Lu-DOTATATE, effective half-life in blood and early elimination phase were 0.31?±?0.13 and 4.5?±?1 h, while they were found as 0.4?±?0.1 and 5?±?1 h, respectively, for ¹⁷⁷Lu-PSMA. The first micturition time following ¹⁷⁷Lu-DOTATATE infusion was noted after 36?±?14 min, while the second and third voiding times were after 74?±?9 and 128?±?41 min, respectively. It is concluded that blood clearance and radiation exposure for ¹⁷⁷Lu-DOTATATE are very similar to those for ¹⁷⁷Lu-PSMA, and both treatment modalities are reasonably reliable for outpatient treatment, since the mean dose rate [2.1 µSv/(h GBq)] decreased below the dose rate that allows release of the patient from the hospital (20 µSv/h) after 6 h at 1 m distance.     

Non-ionic Surfactant Based <Emphasis Type="Italic">In Situ</Emphasis> Forming Vesicles as Controlled Parenteral Delivery Systems

Non-ionic surfactant (NIS) based in situ forming vesicles (ISVs) present an affordable alternative to the traditional systems for the parenteral control of drug release. In this work, NIS based ISVs encapsulating tenoxicam were prepared using the emulsion method. Tenoxicam-loaded ISVs were prepared using a 2².3¹ full factorial experimental design, where three factors were evaluated as independent variables; type of NIS (A), molar ratio of NIS to Tween®80 (B), and phase ratio of the internal ethyl acetate to the external Captex® oil phase (C). Percentage drug released after 1 h, particle size of the obtained vesicles and mean dissolution time were chosen as the dependent variables. Selected formulation was subjected to morphological investigation, injectability, viscosity measurements, and solid state characterization. Optimum formulation showed spherical nano-vesicles in the size of 379.08 nm with an initial drug release of 37.32% in the first hour followed by a sustained drug release pattern for 6 days. DSC analysis of the optimized formulation confirmed the presence of the drug in an amorphous form with the nano-vesicles. Biological evaluation of the selected formulation was performed on New Zealand rabbits by IM injection. The prepared ISVs exhibited a 45- and 28-fold larger AUC and MRT values, respectively, compared to those of the drug suspension. The obtained findings boost the use of ISVs for the treatment of many chronic inflammatory conditions.