Plant use by the q’eqchi’ maya of belize in ethnopsychiatry and neurological pathology

Plant Use by the Q’eqchi’ Maya of Belize in Ethnopsychiatry and Neurological Pathology. Economic Botany 59(4):326–336, 2005. Neurological and mental health disorders are extremely debilitating, and sufferers in developing countries often rely on traditional practitioners for these medical needs. Few studies have focused on botanical remedies used in this context, although these offer interesting treatment alternatives. The present study investigated plant use for the treatment of neurological and mental health disorders by Q'eqchi' Maya healers of southern Belize. We found that these healers generally recognize and treat epilepsy/seizures, headache, madness, fright (susto), depression, numbness, insomnia, and stress with herbal remedies. Quantitative analyses showed that there is selection for the use of certain species and botanical families, namely for species of the Pteridophyta division and for plants from the Piperaceae family. This study denotes the importance and selectivity of plant use by Q'eqchi' healers of southern Belize for the treatment of neurological and mental conditions and points to a possible underrepresentation of these disorders in the ethnobotanical literature.     

Occurrence of Halophila baillonii meadows in Belize,Central America

Halophila baillonii Ascherson was found in Belize, Central America in 2003 and 2005. The observation extends the known range of this seagrass species to the western Caribbean. H. baillonii was previously recorded only in the eastern Caribbean and at one Pacific site in Panama. Both fruits and flowers of H. baillonii were observed at two locations in Belize in 2005. H. baillonii in Belize is an important food for manatee, forms a productive seagrass-based ecosystem, and is adversely affected by shoreline development and watershed run-off.     

Geographic Microsatellite Variability in Central American Howling Monkeys

In 1997, we began to assess the genetic variability and the potential conservation risk of the increasing human impact on the howling monkeys of Ometepe Island in southern Nicaragua. We captured and collected blood from 29 howling monkeys (Alouatta palliata) at two geographically separated localities in a single area (San Ramon) on Ometepe Island, Nicaragua, during two field seasons. We also collected blood from a community of 10 Alouatta pigra in the Scotland Half Moon region in Belize. We extracted DNA from the blood and analyzed 12 microsatellite loci. The number of alleles per locus (allele variability) is less for most (but not all) loci in the Ometepe versus the Belize sample and less than earlier published reports of mixed geographic samples from Central America. The results are noteworthy in that both the Ometepe Island sample and the Belize sample possess greater allelic heterozygosity for most loci than reported in other Central American howling monkey populations. The Ometepe and Belize groups also demonstrated differences in allele frequencies at each geographic location. There appeared to be adequate gene flow in both locations despite extensive fragmentation due to agriculture and other human land usage.     

The Naucoridae (Heteroptera: Nepomorpha) of Belize

ABSTRACT

Few regional faunistic treatments of aquatic Heteroptera exist for Mesoamerica. Records given here are the result of three extensive, coincident projects, each generating many specimens of Naucoridae. Thus, presented here is an annotated list of Naucoridae occurring in Belize, with an illustrated taxonomic key and notes on habitat. Three species are new country records, and ten species in four genera are now known from Belize.     

Free-ranging black howler monkeys, Alouatta pigra, in southern Belize are not parasitized by Controrchis biliophilus

Several coprological studies of Alouatta pigra, the black howler monkey, inhabiting Belize and Mexico have been published in the past several years. Trematodes, specifically Controrchis biliophilus (Dicrocoeliidae), have been detected in A. pigra from all locations in Belize and Mexico examined in those studies. A routine coprological survey of A. pigra was conducted in May and June 2010 as part of baseline data collection for an A. pigra population in Punta Gorda, Toledo District, southern Belize. The 51 fecal samples collected in this area were all negative for C. biliophilus. Subsequently, two additional fecal samples were collected from another population of A. pigra in Toledo District and 25 additional fecal samples were collected from six other areas of Belize during December 2010 and January 2011 and were examined for parasites. To date, C. biliophilus eggs have been detected in fecal samples from A. pigra inhabiting every district of Belize except Toledo District in southern Belize. This finding is notable, for no other population of A. pigra completely free of C. biliophilus infection had been located prior to this study.     

Checklist of American Coptotriche (Insecta: Lepidoptera: Tischeriidae) with descriptions of two new species from the tropical forest of Belize (Central America)

Two new species are described from the tropical forest of Belize: Coptotriche singularis (host-plant unknown) and C. forsteroniae (leaf-miner on Forsteronia myriantha, Apocynaceae). The external features and male genitalia are figured and described for both species. A checklist of Coptotriche species comprising 31 species currently known from the Americas is given. Most of the species are known from mainland USA and Canada, and only a few from the Neotropics (the Caribbean and Belize).     

DDTs in Soils Affected by Mosquito Fumigation in Belize

DDTs were sprayed extensively in Belize to combat malaria but widespread use ceased after 1997. To determine if DDTs still persist in Belize's soils, 23 composite soil samples were collected from each of the two towns of Dangriga and Punta Gorda. Dichlorodiphenyltricholoroethane (DDT) and its breakdown products dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (DDD) were the only organochlorine compounds detected in the soils. Results show that DDTs are transferred to the soil environment as a result of spraying houses and that the pesticides still persist in soils in southern Belize after more than 10 years of non-use. Sprayed lots had DDT concentrations up to 240 μg/kg in Dangriga and up to 410 μg/kg in Punta Gorda. All unsprayed lots had below detection limit concentrations, with the exception of two sites in Punta Gorda. Hot spot analysis in GIS indicates that significant spatial variability exists in detected concentrations of DDTs, which has implications for extrapolation of local data. Belize currently has no guidelines for determining risk of DDTs to human health and soil cleanup, but soil cleanup guidelines employed by foreign governmental entities such as the Netherlands and California show that all detected pesticide concentrations in this study are below mandated concentrations of concern for the residential areas of these regions. However, since exposure scenarios may be different in Belize, it is recommended that the Belize Ministry of Health conducts a risk analysis to ascertain if the concentrations of DDTs in sprayed areas pose a risk to the inhabitants of the two towns.     

Habitat preferences and species associations of shallow-water marine Tubificidae (Oligochaeta) from the barrier reef ecosystems off Belize,Central America

The marine tubificid oligochaete fauna of Belize is the most diverse that has been described for the Caribbean Sea, with records for over 50% of all known Caribbean species. Tubificids were sampled at 77 stations around the outer barrier of the coral reefs off the Belize mainland. A total of 1,529 individuals representing 52 species were collected. Species distribution patterns were controlled mainly by sediment type and the presence or absence of mangroves. Six species (Phallodrilus molestus, Tubificoides bermudae, Inanidrilus leukodermatus, Heterodrilus flexuosus, Bathydrilus formosus, Smithsonidrilus hummelincki) with diverse life history characteristics were common and had broad habitat preferences being found in various types of heterogeneous sandy sediments. Heterodrilus flexuosus was the only common species in these samples known only in Belize. The other five common species range from Belize to Florida or Bermuda. Most other species have narrower habitat preferences and are limited to specific habitats. For example, one group of gutless species was restricted to organically enriched fine to medium sands, a group of Limnodriloidinae occurred only in mud around mangrove cays, and a group of meiofaunal species were restricted to saline groundwater.     

Caribbean placozoan phylogeography

We here address placozoan distribution and phylogeography in five locations in the Caribbean Sea. We performed a coarse-resolution presence/absence survey of placozoans in Belize, Bermuda, Grenada, Jamaica, and Panama and a fine-resolution study of the distribution of placozoans in Twin Cays, Belize. Placozoans were recovered in every country sampled. Animals were sequenced at the mitochondrial 16S rDNA locus, and our analysis identified four of the five previously identified clades present in the Caribbean. In addition, we discovered two new haplotypes within one of these clades, and we found sympatric clades in Belize, Bermuda, Jamaica, and Panama. These studies provide further molecular evidence for species diversity within the Phylum Placozoa.     

Cryptic genetic diversity and spatial patterns of admixture within Belizean marine reserves

Despite the potential for long-distance gene flow in the sea, there is growing evidence of cryptic genetic diversity in many marine taxa. Understanding the geographic distribution of cryptic lineages, as well as the spatial patterns of admixture among them, can have important implications for conservation planning. Here, we explore patterns of divergence in a coral reef fish, the neon goby Elacatinus lori, across the species’ range. First, we use targeted amplicon sequencing to describe the spatial pattern of genetic divergence using two marker types (57 anonymous ddRAD-derived loci and mtDNA cytb). Second, we quantify the degree of admixture and hybridization between two previously-unidentified divergent lineages within Belize. Third, we assess whether the existing group of marine protected areas (MPAs) in Belize protects this cryptic genetic diversity. The results provide strong evidence for two divergent genetic lineages of E. lori within Belize, separated geographically by only 30 km of low-suitability habitat. There is a sharp genetic cline across these 30 km, and evidence of admixture and introgression at the boundary regions of the habitat break. We also show that the broadly-distributed arrangement of MPAs within Belize protects both major lineages as well as subtle structure within-lineages, and therefore may confer protection to co-distributed species that exhibit similar spatial patterns of divergence.     

A consensus ethnobotany of the Q’eqchi’ Maya of Southern Belize

An ethnobotany study in collaboration with Q’eqchi’ Maya healers of Southern Belize led to a collection of 169 medicinal plant species, belonging to 67 different families. The data show the use of a majority of species from primary or secondary semi-evergreen rainforests of Southern Belize, rather than weedy species. The medicinal uses of the plants were grouped into 17 usage categories. The frequency of use for each plant and the informant consensus factor for each usage category reveals a consensus among the healers on the use of plant species as well as on the diseases treated. These results suggest a well-defined medicinal tradition.     

Hematological responses to hematozoa in North American and neotropical songbirds

Hematocrit (Hct), hemoglobin concentration, RBC count, and blood parasite loads (Plasmodium, Leucocytozoon, Haemoproteus, Trypanosoma, microfilariae) were measured in 688 passerine birds captured at four sites in the US and Belize, C.A., to assess physiological consequences of parasitemia. Parasite loads were low overall: 80% of birds had <5 parasites/10000 RBCs; median infection intensity was 1 per 10000 RBCs. Infection prevalence and intensity were higher in Belize than in the US. Analyses across and within taxa revealed no significant linear correlations between hematology values and parasite load, though infected birds were more likely to be anemic. Neotropical migrants reaching the southern US had lower parasite loads than migrants wintering in Belize. Mean Hct was significantly elevated among infected migrants (but not uninfected migrants) reaching the US relative to migrants in Belize. Long-distance migration thus appears to act as a filter for heavily parasitized and anemic birds. Geographic and seasonal variations in hematology indices were similar within and between taxa, suggesting that community-wide factors, rather than phylogenetic attributes or species-specific pathogens, account for the majority of hematological variation. The low parasite loads and weak correlation between parasite load and hematology indices have implications for attempts to test the version of the 'good genes' hypothesis.     

Comparison of autumn and spring migration strategies of Neotropical migratory landbirds in northeast Belize

ABSTRACT Migration represents one of the most vulnerable stages of a migrant's life cycle, but the strategies and stopover sites used by Neotropical migrants in Central America are not well known. We carried out constant‐effort mist netting and conducted censuses along transects during one autumn (2007) and one spring (2008) migration in northeast Belize. We recorded more landbird migrant species in autumn (63) than in spring (54), and spring abundance was >25% lower for 88% of transient species. These differences in presence and abundance indicate that routes and stopover strategies vary between seasons and species. In autumn, fuel loads, calculated as any increase in mass above lean body mass (LBM), were generally small (mean = 5.9% LBM and 10.1% LBM for wintering and transient species, respectively) and fuel deposition rates and minimum stopover durations suggest that some individuals replenished energy reserves in our study area. Variation in autumn fuel loads meant that some individuals had reserves sufficient for flights >1000 km. Fuel loads were larger in spring for 16 of 17 species, and the mean spring fuel load for transient species (32.5% LBM) was sufficient for a flight from northeast Belize to North America without refueling. The similarity in spring passage times between northeast Belize and the Gulf Coast of the United States also suggests that energy reserves were not replenished in northeast Belize prior to crossing the Gulf of Mexico. We hypothesize that sufficient energy reserves are accumulated during spring stopovers in northern South America or elsewhere in Mesoamerica to allow migrants to fly directly to North America without refueling.     

Development of in situ hybridization and RT-PCR assay for the detection of a nodavirus (PvNV) that causes muscle necrosis in Penaeus vannamei

A nodavirus (tentatively named PvNV, Penaeus vannamei nodavirus) that causes muscle necrosis in P. vannamei was found in Belize in 2004. From 2004 to 2006, shrimp samples collected from Belize exhibited clinical signs, white, opaque lesions in the tails and histopathology similar to those of shrimps infected by infectious myonecrosis virus (IMNV). Histological examination revealed multifocal necrosis and hemocytic fibrosis in the skeletal muscle. In addition, basophilic, cytoplasmic inclusions were found in striated muscle, lymphoid organ and connective tissues. However, IMNV was not detected in these shrimps by either RT-PCR or in situ hybridization, suggesting that these lesions may be caused by another RNA virus. Thus, a cDNA library was constructed from total RNA extracted from hemolymph collected from infected shrimp. One clone (designated PvNV-4) with a 928 bp insert was sequenced and found to be similar (69% similarity when comparing the translated amino acid sequences) to the capsid protein gene of MrNV (Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus). The insert of PvNV-4 was labeled with digoxigenin-11-deoxyuridine triphosphate (dUTP) and hybridized to tissue sections of P. vannamei with muscle necrosis collected in Belize and from laboratory bioassays. The samples were positive for PvNV infection. Positively reacting tissues included skeletal muscle, connective tissues, the lymphoid organ, and hemocytes in the heart and gills. In addition, we experimentally infected both P. vannamei and P. monodon with PvNV prepared from Belize samples. A nested RT-PCR assay developed from the PvNV-4 cloned sequence showed that both species are susceptible to PvNV infection.     

Low Levels of Nucleotide Diversity in Crocodylus moreletii and Evidence of Hybridization with C. acutus

Examinations of both population genetic structure and the processes that lead to such structure in crocodilians have been initiated in several species in response to a call by the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group. A recent study used microsatellite markers to characterize Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii) populations in north-central Belize and presented evidence for isolation by distance. To further investigate this hypothesis, we sequenced a portion of the mitochondrial control region for representative animals after including samples from additional locales in Belize, Guatemala and Mexico. While there is limited evidence of subdivision involving other locales, we found that most of the differentiation among populations of C. moreletiican be attributed to animals collected from a single locale in Belize, Banana Bank Lagoon. Furthermore, mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis showed that animals from this and certain other locales display a haplotype characteristic of the American crocodile, C. acutus, rather than C. moreletii. We interpret this as evidence of hybridization between the two species and comment on how these new data have influenced our interpretation of previous findings. We also find very low levels of nucleotide diversity in C. moreletiihaplotypes and provide evidence for a low rate of substitution in the crocodilian mitochondrial control region. Finally, the conservation implications of these findings are discussed.     

Genetic connectivity in the Florida reef system: comparative phylogeography of commensal invertebrates with contrasting reproductive strategies

Effective spatial management of coral reefs including design of marine protected areas requires an understanding of interpopulation genetic connectivity. We assessed gene flow along 355 km of the Florida reef system and between Florida and Belize in three commensal invertebrates occupying the same host sponge (Callyspongia vaginalis) but displaying contrasting reproductive dispersal strategies: the broadcast-spawning brittle star Ophiothrix lineata and two brooding amphipods Leucothoe kensleyi and Leucothoe ashleyae. Multiple analytical approaches to sequence variation in the mitochondrial COI gene demonstrated a high degree of overall connectivity for all three species along the Florida reef system. Ophiothrix lineata showed significant genetic structuring between Florida and Belize, and a pattern of isolation by distance but no significant genetic structuring along the Florida coastline. Bayesian estimates of migration detected a strong southerly dispersal bias for O. lineata along the Florida reef system, contrary to the general assumption of northerly gene flow in this region based on the direction of the Florida Current. Both amphipods, despite direct development, also showed high gene flow along the Florida reef system. Multiple inferences of long-distance dispersal from a nested clade analysis support the hypothesis that amphipod transport, possibly in detached sponge fragments, could generate the high levels of overall gene flow observed. However, this transport mechanism appears much less effective across deep water as connectivity between Florida and Belize (1072 km) is highly restricted.     

Copepods of the genus Halicyclops (Cyclopidae) from Belize

Halicyclops tetracanthus sp.n. and H. venezuelaensis Lindberg were found in the Sittee River Estuary, Belize. The new species is distinguished from all its congeners by having a distal spine and two spiniform heterogeneously ornamented setae on the inner margin of the terminal endopodal segment of legs 2 and 3. Halicyclops venezuelaensis, previously known only from Venezuela is redescribed based on specimens of both sexes. Differences in the ornamentation as well as in the relative length of some setae of the maxilla and maxilliped are pointed out as additional useful characters in the taxonomy of Halicyclops. This is the first record of Halicyclops in Belize.     

A regression analysis of q’eqchi’ Maya medicinal plants from southern Belize

A previous study provided a general quantitative analysis of 169 collected medicinal plants used by the Q’eqchi’ Maya healers of southern Belize. This paper is focused on a statistical analysis of this ethnobotanical information using the method developed by Moerman (1991). The residual values obtained from the regression analysis of the Q’eqchi’ medicinal plant species versus the species listed in the checklist of the vascular plants of Belize (Balick, Nee, and Atha, 2001) placed the Piperaceae, the Rubiaceae, and the Asteraceae in the first three ranks, and the Poaceae, the Cyperaceae, and the Orchidaceae in the last three ranks. The results were compared with three northern temperate regions (Kashmir, Korea, and North America) and three southern neotropical regions (Chiapas, Ecuador, and Veracruz). The coefficients of correlation between the checklist of vascular plants of Belize and the other six floras showed, as expected, high values for regions with similar climatic type. Thus, high correlations were determined between the tropical vegetation of Belize and those of Chiapas, Ecuador, and Veracruz. The coefficients were lower with the three temperate floras but still quite high. The same analysis was done with the medicinal plants only and led to much lower coefficients, but once again, the higher results were obtained for Chiapas and Veracruz. In this case, the last rank for Ecuador demonstrated that the selection of plants in traditional medicine by the indigenous people is a complex phenomenon which depends not only on the composition of the flora but also on culture-specific factors.

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Analyse par Regression des Plantes Médicinales des Mayas Q’eqchi'’ du Sud du Belize

Résumé  Une précédente étude a fourni une analyse quantitative générale de 169 plantes médicinales utilisées par les guérisseurs Maya Q’eqchi’ du sud du Belize. Ce document se concentre sur l’analyse statistique des informations ethnobotaniques selon la méthode développée par Moerman (1991). Les valeurs résiduelles obtenues à partir des analyses de régression des plantes médicinales Q’eqchi’ vis-à-vis des espèces mentionnées dans la liste des plantes vasculaires du Belize (Balick, Nee, et Atha, 2001) ont placé les Piperacées, les Rubiacées et les Asteracées aux trois premières places, et les Poacées, les Cyperacées et les Orchidacées aux trois dernières places. Les résultats ont été comparés avec ceux de trois régions tempérées du nord (Cachemire, Corée, et Amérique du Nord) et de trois régions néotropicales du sud (Chiapas, équateur, et Veracruz). Les coefficients de corrélation entre les plantes listées dans le manuel des plantes vasculaires du Belize et les six autres flores ont montré comme attendu de hautes valeurs pour les régions possédant un type climatique similaire. Ainsi, une haute corrélation a été démontrée entre la végétation tropicale du Belize et celles du Chiapas, de l’équateur, et du Veracruz. Les coefficients étaient plus bas avec les trois régions tempérées mais tout de même passablement élevés. La même analyse a été effectuée avec les plantes médicinales et a mené à des coefficients beaucoup plus bas, mais encore une fois, les résultats les plus élevés ont été obtenus pour le Chiapas et le Veracruz. Dans ce cas, la dernière position de l’équateur a souligné que la sélection des plantes par les indigènes dans la médecine traditionnelle est un phénomène complexe qui dépend non seulement de la composition de la flore mais aussi de facteurs spécifiques à la culture.

     

Chamaedorea (xatÉ) in the Greater Maya Mountains and the chiquibul forest reserve, Belize: An economic assessment of a non-timber forest product

Of the twelve species ofChamaedorea palm recorded for Belize, three are of international economic value because their cut leaves (xaté) are traded in the floricultural industry. Traditionally, Belize has not harvested xaté, the industry being based in Mexico and Guatemala. However, a decline in wild xaté stocks in these countries means Guatemalan leaf harvesters now illegally harvest xaté in Belize. To assess the local abundance of the BelizeanChamaedorea resource, its economic value, and the extent to which it has been illegally harvested, 209 plots measuring 20 meters (m) by 20 m were established in the Greater Maya Mountains (GMM) in western Belize, which includes the Chiquibul Forest Reserve (CFR). We estimate that 37.8 million leaves with a value of U.S. 0.3 million to xateros have been extracted from the CFR. The standing export value is calculated as U.S.0.3 million to xateros have been extracted from the CFR. The standing export value is calculated as U.S. 1.8 million for the CFR and U.S. $5 million for the GMM.     

The impacts of tourism on coral reef conservation awareness and support in coastal communities in Belize

Marine recreational tourism is one of a number of threats to the Belize Barrier Reef but, conversely, represents both a motivation and source of resources for its conservation. The growth of tourism in Belize has resulted in the fact that many coastal communities are in varying stages of a socio-economic shift from dependence on fishing to dependence on tourism. In a nation becoming increasingly dependent on the health of its coral reef ecosystems for economic prosperity, a shift from extractive uses to their preservation is both necessary and logical. Through examining local perception data in five coastal communities in Belize, each attracting different levels of coral reef related tourism, this analysis is intended to explore the relationship between tourism development and local coral reef conservation awareness and support. The results of the analysis show a positive correlation between tourism development and coral reef conservation awareness and support in the study communities. The results also show a positive correlation between tourism development and local perceptions of quality of life, a trend that is most likely the source of the observed relationship between tourism and conservation. The study concludes that, because the observed relationship may be dependent on continued benefits from tourism as opposed to a perceived crisis in coral reef health, Belize must pay close attention to tourism impacts in the future. Failure to do this could result in a destructive feedback loop that would contribute to the degradation of the reef and, ultimately, Belize’s diminished competitiveness in the ecotourism market.