NADPH oxidase as the source of ROS produced under waterlogging in roots of mung bean

The objective of this study was to examine the role of NADPH oxidase on superoxide radical production under waterlogging in mung bean (Vigna radiata) cvs. T 44 (tolerant) and Pusa Baisakhi (PB) (susceptible), and wild species Vigna luteola. Two days of waterlogging caused decline in superoxide radical (O₂ ^·−) contents in all the genotypes, however, further waterlogging up to 8 d caused significant increase in O₂ ^·− contents. In control and revived plants O₂ ^·− contents were higher in PB, while under waterlogging stress T 44 and V. luteola showed greater increases in the O₂ ^·− contents. During waterlogging the increase in O₂ ^·− content was found to be due to the diphenylene iodonium chloridesensitive NADPH oxidase (NOX). This was further confirmed by the waterlogging induced increase in NOX activity, which was higher in tolerant genotypes T 44 and V. luteola compared with PB. Gene expression studies showed enhanced expression of NOX in the roots of waterlogged V. luteola and T 44, while little expression was observed in control or treated plants of PB. PCR band products were cloned and sequenced, and partial cDNAs of NOX was obtained. Results suggest that increase in O₂ ^·− content during waterlogging could be due to the induction of membrane linked NOX.     

Expression of antioxidant defense genes in mung bean (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vigna radiata</Emphasis> L.) roots under water-logging is associated with hypoxia tolerance

This study was conducted to examine the extent of oxidative stress and the role of antioxidant enzymes on hypoxia tolerance in highly tolerant wild species Vigna luteola, and mung bean (Vigna radiata) cvs. T 44 (tolerant) and Pusa Baisakhi (susceptible). Two days of water-logging caused about 40–50% decline in superoxide radical (O₂ ^·−) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) contents in all the genotypes, however, further water-logging to 8 days caused significant increase in O₂ ^·− and H₂O₂ contents, and the values were 80–90% of the control values. In control and revived plants O₂ ^·− and H₂O₂ contents were higher in Pusa Baisakhi, while under water-logging stress T 44 and V. luteola showed greater increases in the O₂ ^·− and H₂O₂ contents. Hypoxia induced increase in superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, and glutathione reductase activities were higher in T 44 and V. luteola compared with Pusa Baisakhi; and the increases in T 44 and V. luteola continued up to 8th day of water-logging, while in case of Pusa Baisakhi, the maximum increase was observed only on the 2nd day of water-logging. Gene expression studies showed enhanced expression of cytosolic-Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase (SOD) and cytosolic-ascorbate peroxidase (APX) in the roots of waterlogged V. luteola and T 44, while little expression was observed in control or treated plants of Pusa Baisakhi. PCR band products were cloned and sequenced, and partial cDNAs of Cu/Zn-SOD and APX, respectively, were obtained. Results suggest that increase in the activity of antioxidant enzymes is to scavenge reactive oxygen species produced both during and after relief from water-logging stress.     

Yield, growth and physiological responses of mung bean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] genotypes to waterlogging at vegetative stage

A study was conducted to examine the physiological response of contrasting mung bean (Vigna radiata) genotypes viz., T 44 & MH–96–1 (tolerant) and Pusa Baisakhi & MH–1K–24 (sensitive) under waterlogging conditions. Plants were waterlogged at vegetative stage (30 days after sowing) for 3, 6 and 9 days. Waterlogging resulted in decreased leaf area, crop growth rate, root growth and nodules number, membrane stability index, photosynthesis rate, chlorophyll and carotenoid contents, flowering rate, pod setting, yield and altered dry matter partitioning. Sensitive genotypes showed large reductions in aforementioned physiological traits and slow recovery in photosynthesis rate. On the other hand, tolerant genotypes maintained higher photosynthetic rate, chlorophylls and carotenoids, growth rate, membrane stability and fast photosynthetic recovery under waterlogging. After 9 days of exposure to waterlogging, photosynthetic rate and yield losses in most sensitive genotype (MH-1K-24) were 83 and 85 %, respectively. On an average, photosynthetic loss at 3, 6 and 9 days of waterlogging was 43, 51, and 63 %, respectively, while grain yield loss was 20, 34 and 52 % respectively.     

Waterlogging-induced increase in sugar mobilization, fermentation, and related gene expression in the roots of mung bean (Vigna radiata)

The objective of this study was to examine the role of root carbohydrate levels and metabolism in the waterlogging tolerance of contrasting mung bean genotypes. An experiment was conducted with two cultivated mung bean (Vigna radiata) genotypes viz., T44 (tolerant) and Pusa Baisakhi (PB) (susceptible), and a wild Vigna species Vigna luteola under pot-culture to study the physiological and molecular mechanism of waterlogging tolerance. Waterlogging resulted in decrease in relative water content (RWC), membrane stability index (MSI) in root and leaf tissues, and chlorophyll (Chl) content in leaves, while the Chl a/b ratio increased. Waterlogging-induced decline in RWC, MSI, Chl and increase in Chl a/b ratio was greater in PB than V. luteola and T44. Waterlogging caused decline in total and non-reducing sugars in all the genotypes and reducing sugars in PB, while the content of reducing sugar increased in V. luteola and T44. The pattern of variation in reducing sugar content in the 3 genotypes was parallel to sucrose synthase (SS) activity. V. luteola and T44 also showed fewer declines in total and non-reducing sugars and greater increase in reducing sugar and SS activity than PB. Activity of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) increased up to 8d of waterlogging in V. luteola and T44, while in PB a marginal increase was observed only up to 4d of treatment. Gene expression studies done by RT-PCR in 24h waterlogged plants showed enhanced expression of ADH and SS in the roots of V. luteola and T44, while in PB there was no change in expression level in control or treated plants. PCR band products were cloned and sequenced, and partial cDNAs of 531, 626, and 667; 702, 736, and 744bp of SS and ADH, respectively were obtained. The partial cDNA sequences of cloned SS genes showed 93-100 homologies among different genotypes and with D10266, while in case of ADH the similarity was in the range of 97-100% amongst each other and with Z23170. The results suggest that the availability of sufficient sugar reserve in the roots, activity of SS to provide reducing sugars for glycolytic activity and ADH for the recycling of NADH, and for the continuation of glycolysis, could be one of the important mechanisms of waterlogging tolerance of V. radiata genotype T44 and wild species V. luteola. This was reflected in better RWC and Chl content in leaves, and membrane stability of leaf and root tissue in V. luteola and T44.     

Waterlogging induced oxidative stress and antioxidant activity in pigeonpea genotypes

The objective of this study was to examine the role of antioxidant enzymes in waterlogging tolerance of pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L. Halls) genotypes ICP 301 (tolerant) and Pusa 207 (susceptible). Waterlogging resulted in visible yellowing and senescence of leaves, decrease in leaf area, dry matter, relative water content and chlorophyll content in leaves, and membrane stability index in roots and leaves. The decline in all parameters was greater in Pusa 207 than ICP 301. Oxidative stress in the form of superoxide radical, hydrogen peroxide and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) contents initially decreased, however at 4 and 6 d of waterlogging it increased over control plants, probably due to activation of DPI-sensitive NADPH-oxidase. Antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, glutathione reductase and catalase also increased under waterlogging. The comparatively greater antioxidant enzyme activities resulting in less oxidative stress in ICP 301 could be one of the factor determining its higher tolerance to flooding as compared to Pusa 207. This study is the first to conclusively prove that waterlogging induced increase in ROS is via NADPH oxidase.     

Salicylic acid alleviates decreases in photosynthesis under salt stress by enhancing nitrogen and sulfur assimilation and antioxidant metabolism differentially in two mungbean cultivars

Salicylic acid (SA) is known to affect photosynthesis under normal conditions and induces tolerance in plants to biotic and abiotic stresses through influencing physiological processes. In this study, physiological processes were compared in salt-tolerant (Pusa Vishal) and salt-sensitive (T44) cultivars of mungbean and examined how much these processes were induced by SA treatment to alleviate decrease in photosynthesis under salt stress. Cultivar T44 accumulated higher leaf Na⁺ and Cl⁻ content and exhibited greater oxidative stress than Pusa Vishal. Activity of antioxidant enzymes, ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and glutathione reductase (GR) was greater in Pusa Vishal than T44. Contrarily, activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) was greater in T44. The greater accumulation of leaf nitrogen and sulfur through higher activity of their assimilating enzymes, nitrate reductase (NR) and ATP-sulfurylase (ATPS) increased reduced glutathione (GSH) content more conspicuously in Pusa Vishal than T44. Application of 0.5 mM SA increased nitrogen and sulfur assimilation, GSH content and activity of APX and GR. This resulted in the increase in photosynthesis under non-saline condition and alleviated the decrease in photosynthesis under salt stress. It also helped in restricting Na⁺ and Cl⁻ content in leaf, and maintaining higher efficiency of PSII, photosynthetic N-use efficiency (NUE) and water relations in Pusa Vishal. However, application of 1.0 mM SA resulted in inhibitory effects. The effect of SA was more pronounced in Pusa Vishal than T44. These results indicate that SA application alleviates the salt-induced decrease in photosynthesis mainly through inducing the activity of NR and ATPS, and increasing antioxidant metabolism to a greater extent in Pusa Vishal than T44.     

Waterlogging induced oxidative stress and antioxidant enzyme activities in pigeon pea

An experiment was conducted with two contrasting pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.) genotypes, ICPL 84023 (tolerant) and ICP 7035 (susceptible), to study the physiological and molecular basis of waterlogging tolerance in relation to oxidative stress and antioxidant enzyme activities. Waterlogging resulted in visible yellowing and premature senescence of leaves, and greater decline in relative water content, chlorophyll content, and membrane stability index in ICP 7035 than in ICPL 84023. Superoxide radical and hydrogen peroxide contents increased at day 4 and 6 of waterlogging probably due to activation of NADPH-oxidase. O₂ ^·− production was inhibited, by diphenylene iodonium chloride, a specific inhibitor of NADPH oxidase and expression of NADPH oxidase-mRNA was increased under waterlogging condition in ICPL 84023. ICP 7035 showed higher contents of ROS in control condition and after recovery, however, during waterlogging the O₂ ^·− production was higher in ICPL 84023. Activities of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), glutathione reductase and catalase increased under waterlogging more in ICPL 84023 than in ICP 7035. Cu/Zn-SOD and APX-mRNA expression in 24-h waterlogged plants showed enhanced expression in ICPL 84023 compared to ICP 7035. The cloning and sequencing of APX gene of tolerant and susceptible genotypes yielded cDNAs of 622 and 623 bp, having 95 % homology with each other and 92 % with the corresponding sequences of Vigna unguiculate APX-gene.     

Cadmium causes oxidative stress in mung bean by affecting the antioxidant enzyme system and ascorbate-glutathione cycle metabolism

Ascorbate (AsA)-glutathione (GSH) cycle metabolism is an essential mechanism for the resistance of plants under stress conditions. In a greenhouse pot experiment, the influence of cadmium (Cd) (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg soil) on plant dry weight and leaf area, photosynthetic parameters (net photosynthetic rate (P_N) and chlorophyll (Chl) content) and oxidative stress, and the possible protective role of AsA-GSH cycle metabolism was studied in two mung bean (Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek.) cvs. Pusa 9531 (Cd-tolerant) and PS 16 (Cd-susceptible) at 30 days after sowing. The contents of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS), H₂O₂, and the leakage of ions were the highest at 100 mg Cd/kg soil, and the effect was more pronounced in cv. PS 16 than in cv. Pusa 9531. This was concomitant with the strongest decreases in P_N, plant dry weight, and leaf area. The changes in the AsA-GSH redox state and an increase in AsA-GSH-regenerating enzymes, such as glutathione reductase, monodehydroascorbate reductase, dehydroascorbate reductase, and other antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase and ascorbate peroxidase, strongly supported over-utilization of AsA-GSH in Cd-treated plants. However, the oxidative stress caused by Cd toxicity was partially overcome by AsA-GSH-based detoxification mechanism in the two genotypes studied because an increases in lipid peroxidation (TBARS, ion leakage) and H₂O₂ content were accompanied by a corresponding decrease in reduced AsA and GSH pools. Thus, changes in AsA-GSH pools and the coordination between AsA-GSH-regenerating enzymes and other enzymatic antioxidants of the leaves suggest their relevance to the defense against Cd stress.     

Effects of Nitrate Level on Nitrogen Metabolism in Winged Bean and Soya Bean

The effects of high (15 mM) and low (0.75 mM) solution nitratelevels on nitrogen metabolism in three genotypes (IL 7A, IL13 and IL 21) of winged beans [Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.)DC.] and one genotype (Williams) of soya bean [Glycine max (L.)Merrill] were investigated. Plants were grown for 42 days ina greenhouse in solution culture prior to sampling. The 15 mM nitrate treatment resulted in greater growth of allplant parts except roots. Growth of soya beans was more responsiveto nitrate level than was growth of winged beans. The high nitratelevel inhibited nodulation in all plants. The IL 13 and IL 21winged bean genotypes had similar nitrogenase activity (acetylenereduction per plant) as the soya bean and IL 7A winged beangenotype had lower activity. However, the IL 13 winged beangenotype had higher nitrogenase activity (acetylene reductionper unit nodule mass) than the other three genotypes which allhad similar activity. The 15 mM solution nitrate level stimulatedleaf and root nitrate reductase (NR) activity for all plants.All winged bean genotypes had higher leaf NR activity and higherpercentage reduced- and nitrate-nitrogen contents of leavesand stems compared with soya beans. However, total protein (reducednitrogen) was greater in soya beans when sampled indicatingthat more nitrate had been metabolized by soya beans than bywinged beans during the 42-day growth period. Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (L.) DC., winged bean, Glycine max (L.) Merrill, Soya bean, nitrate reductase, nitrogen fixation, nitrogenase activity, nodulation     

Genotypic Variation in Phytoremediation Potential of Indian Mustard Exposed to Nickel Stress: A Hydroponic Study

Ten Indian mustard (Brassica juncea L.) genotypes were screened for their nickel (Ni) phytoremediation potential under controlled environmental conditions. All ten genotypes were grown hydroponically in aqueous solution containing Ni concentrations (as nickel chloride) ranging from 0 to 50 μM and changes in plant growth, biomass and total Ni uptake were evaluated. Of the ten genotypes (viz. Agrini, BTO, Kranti, Pusa Basant, Pusa Jai Kisan, Pusa Bahar, Pusa Bold, Vardhan, Varuna, and Vaibhav), Pusa Jai Kisan was the most Ni tolerant genotype accumulating up to 1.7 μg Ni g^?1 dry weight (DW) in its aerial parts. Thus Pusa Jai Kisan had the greatest potential to become a viable candidate in the development of practical phytoremediation technologies for Ni contaminated sites.     

Influence of Water Stress on Water Relations, Photosynthetic Parameters and Nitrogen Metabolism of Moth Bean Genotypes

Effects of water stress at pre-flowering stage were studied in three genotypes (RMO-40, Maru moth and CZM-32 E) of moth bean [Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Marechal]. Increasing water stress progressively decreased plant water potential, leaf area, net photosynthetic rate, starch and soluble protein contents and nitrate reductase activity while contents of reducing sugars, total soluble sugar, free amino acids and free proline progressively increased. Significant genotypic differences were observed and genotype CZM-32-E displayed a better drought tolerance than other genotypes.     

Caffeic acid inhibits in vitro rooting in mung bean [Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek] hypocotyls by inducing oxidative stress

Caffeic acid (CA), which is ubiquitously present in plants, is a potent phytotoxin affecting plant growth and physiology. The aim of our study was to investigate whether CA-induced inhibition of adventitious root formation (ARF) in mung bean {Vigna radiata (L.) Wilczek [Phaseolus aureus Roxb.]} involves the induction of conventional stress responses. The effect of CA (0–1000 μM) on ARF in mung bean was determined by measuring the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in terms of malondialdehyde and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) content, root oxidizability and changes in levels of antioxidant enzymes. Our results show that CA significantly enhanced MDA content, indicating severe lipid peroxidation, and increased H₂O₂ accumulation and root oxidizability in the lower rooted hypocotylar region (LRHR) of mung bean, thereby inducing oxidative stress and cellular damage. In response to CA, there was a significant upregulation in the activities of scavenging enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase, ascorbate peroxidase, guaiacol peroxidase, catalase and glutathione reductase, in LRHRs of mung bean. Based on these results, we conclude that CA inhibits ARF in mung bean hypocotyls by inducing ROS-generated oxidative stress and upregulating the activities of antioxidant enzymes.     

Effect of Nitrogen on Nitrate Reductase Activity in the Nodules and Leaves of Summer Moong (Vigna radiata)

The relation of the in vivo nitrate reductase (NR) activityto growth period was studied in the nodules and the leaves ofthe summer moong (Vigna radiata). The maximum NR activity wasobserved 31 days after sowing (DAS) in the leaves and 28 DASin the case of the nodules. In a pot experiment, the effectof the various nitrogen concentrations, namely 0, 3, 6, 9 and12 mg kg^–1 was studied on NR activity at three growthstages. The maximum NR activity was observed at 6 mg kg^–1N during the pre-flowering stage (26 DAS). Though the noduleshave higher NR activity, its expression was limited by substrateavailability. The NR activity in the leaf could be used as anindex of NR activity in the nodules. Nitrate reductase, nitrogen, nitrate, moong, Vigna radiata     

Inhibitory effects of nitric oxide on oxidative phosphorylation in plant mitochondria.

Plant nitrate reductase (NR) produces nitric oxide (NO) when nitrite is provided as the substrate in the presence of NADH [H. Yamasaki and Y. Sakihama (2000) FEBS Lett. 468, 89-92]. Using a NR-dependent NO producing system, we investigated the effects of NO on the energy transduction system in plant mitochondria isolated from mung bean (Vigna radiata). Plant mitochondria are known to possess two respiratory electron transport pathways-the cytochrome and alternative pathways. When the alternative pathway was inhibited by n-propyl gallate, the addition of NR strongly suppressed respiratory O(2) consumption driven by the cytochrome pathway. In contrast, the alternative pathway measured in the presence of antimycin A was not affected by NO. The extent of the steady-state membrane potential (Deltapsi) generated by respiratory electron transport rapidly declined in response to NO production. The addition of bovine hemoglobin, a quencher of NO, resulted in the recovery of Deltapsi to the uninhibited level. Consistent with its inhibition of Deltapsi, NO produced by NR strongly suppressed ATP synthesis in the mitochondria. These results provide substantial evidence to confirm that the plant alternative pathway is resistant to NO and support the idea that the alternative pathway may lower respiration-dependent production of active oxygens under conditions where NO is overproduced.     

Quantitative and Qualitative Changes in Peroxidase during Germination of Mung Bean under Salt Stress

Seeds of mung bean (Phaseolus aureus Roxb.) cv. Pusa Baisakhi were surface sterilized with sodium hypochlorite solution and sown both in Petri dishes and in sand culture containing aqueous solutions of four different salts, viz. NaCI, KCI, Na₂SO₄ and K₂SO₄, each at 5 and 10 S/cm. Peroxidase activity and its isoenzymes were studied in different plant parts at suitable time intervals during germination. Activity of peroxidase increased in embryo axis and leaves but decreased in cotyledons and roots with different salt treatments to varying degrees. A highly significant inverse correlation (r= -0.931 was found between the peroxidase level and the growth of embryo axis under saline conditions. The number of isoenzymes of peroxidase increased with increase in the time of germination. Salinity treatments resulted in the appearance of new isoenzymes in all the plant organs except roots where the isoenzymic pattern remained unchanged. Different types of salinity resulted in the appearance or/and disappearance of different isoenzymes.     

Changes in isoenzymes of soluble malate dehydrogenase during germination of mung bean (Phaseolus aureus Roxb.) under salt stress

Seeds of mung bean (Phaseolus aureus Roxb.) cv. Pusa Baisakhi were surface sterilized and sown both in Petri dishes and sand culture containing aqueous solutions of four different saltsviz. NaCl, KC1, Na₂SO₄ and K₂SO₄ each at 5 and 10 m ?^-1 cm^-1. Malate dehydrogenase (MDH) isoenzymes were studied in different plant parts of mung bean at suitable intervals during germination under four different salts. In cotyledons, 96 h after sowing only one isoenzyme was left in control as compared to three under salt treatment. In the embryo axis, 96 h after sowing, sulphate salts resulted in the disappearance of isoenzymes with R₁ 0.43 and 0.62, whereas isoenzyme with R₁ 0.62 was missing only at a higher concentration of chloride salts. Chloride salts also resulted in the disappearance of band with R₁ 0.15, both in the embryo axis and leaves. However, in the roots the isoenzymic pattern remains the same with all the salt treatments.     

Drought Tolerance in Mung Bean is Associated with the Genotypic Divergence,Regulation of Proline,Photosynthetic Pigment and Water Relation

Drought is one of the critical conditions for the growth and productivity of many crops including mung bean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek). Screening of genotypes for variations is one of the suitable strategies for evaluating crop adaptability and global food security. In this context, the study investigated the physiological and biochemical responses of four drought tolerant (BARI Mung-8, BMX-08010-2, BMX-010015, BMX-08009-7), and four drought sensitive (BARI Mung-1, BARI Mung-3, BU Mung-4, BMX-05001) mung bean genotypes under wellwatered (WW) and water deficit (WD) conditions. The WW treatment maintained sufficient soil moisture (22% ± 0.5%, i.e., 30% deficit of available water) by regularly supplying water. Whereas, the WD treatment was maintained throughout the growing period, and water was applied when the wilting symptom appeared. The drought tolerant (DT) genotypes BARI Mung-8, BMX-08010-2, BMX-010015, BMX-08009-7 showed a high level of proline accumulation (2.52–5.99 mg g⁻¹ FW), photosynthetic pigment (total chlorophyll 2.96–3.27 mg g⁻¹ FW at flowering stage, and 1.62–2.38 mg g⁻¹ FW at pod developing stage), plant water relation attributes including relative water content (RWC) (82%–84%), water retention capacity (WRC) (12–14) as well as lower water saturation deficit (WSD) (19%–23%), and water uptake capacity (WUC) (2.58–2.89) under WD condition, which provided consequently higher relative seed yield. These indicate that the tolerant genotypes gained better physiobiochemical attributes and adaptability in response to drought conditions. Furthermore, the genotype BMX- 08010-2 showed superiority in terms of those physio-biochemical traits, susceptibility index (SSI) and stress tolerance index (STI) to other genotypes. Based on the physiological and biochemical responses, the BMX-08010-2 was found to be a suitable genotype for sustaining yield under drought stress, and subsequently, it could be recommended for crop improvement through hybridization programs. In addition, the identified traits can be used as markers to identify tolerant genotypes for drought-prone areas.     

A Comparative Analysis of in vitro cellulose synthesis from cell-free extracts of mung bean (Vigna radiata,Fabaceae) And Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum,Malvaceae)

A comparison of cellulose synthesized in vitro from primary walls of etiolated mung bean (Vigna radiata) seedlings and secondary walls of cotton fibers (Gossypium hirsutum) was made by applying conditions found to be essential for in vitro cellulose I assembly from cotton (Kudlicka et al., 1995, Plant Physiology, vol. 107, pp. 111–123). Mung bean fractions including the plasma membrane (PM), the first solubilized fraction (SE₁), and the second solubilized fraction (SE₂), incorporated more radioactive UDP-Glc into the total product than the same fractions from secondary walls. A significant difference was found with the mild digitonin solubilized fraction (SE₁), which produced eight times more total product than the SE₁ fraction of cotton. However, the SE₁ fraction from cotton produced a larger quantity of cellulose (32.1%) than from mung bean (6.9%). Treatment of the in vitro product by acetic/nitric acid reagent (AN) for varying periods of time demonstrated that cellulose synthesized in vitro from mung bean was more easily degraded than cellulose from cotton fibers. This would suggest that cellulose I produced in vitro from the cotton SE₁ fraction may have a higher crystallinity and DP than cellulose I produced in vitro from mung bean. The fibrils of cellulose produced by the SE, fraction of mung bean were loosely associated and not arranged into a compact bundle as in case of cellulose I synthesized by the cotton SE₁ fraction. The electron diffraction patterns (ED) of both products show reflections characteristic for cellulose I. Products from the SE₂ fraction of mung bean and cotton reveal similarities with the cellulose II allomorph synthesized, as well as abundant β-1,3-glucan.     

Some physiological abnormalities induced by aflatoxin B1 in mung seeds (Vigna radiata variety Pusa Baishakhi)

Physiological processes of mung seeds (Vigna radiata variety Pusa Baishakhi) and their germination were found to be affected by different concentrations of aflatoxin B₁. Inhibition in seed germination, seedling growth, chlorophyll, protein and nucleic acid syntheses was found to be due to aflatoxin B₁. The range of inhibition varied with the concentration of the toxin added.