Development of restoration techniques for Hawaiian thrushes: Collection of wild eggs,artificial incubation,hand‐rearing,captive‐breeding,and re‐introduction to the wild

From 1995 to 1999, two species of endemic Hawaiian thrushes, `Oma`o (Myadestes obscurus) and Puaiohi (M. palmeri), were captive‐reared and re‐introduced into their historic range in Hawai`i by The Peregrine Fund, in collaboration with the U.S. Geological Survey–Biological Resources Division (BRD) and the Hawai`i State Department of Land and Natural Resources. This paper describes the management techniques that were developed (collection of wild eggs, artificial incubation, hand‐rearing, captive propagation, and release) with the non‐endangered surrogate species, the `Oma`o; techniques that are now being used for recovery of the endangered Puaiohi. In 1995 and 1996, 29 viable `Oma`o eggs were collected from the wild. Of 27 chicks hatched, 25 were hand‐reared and released into Pu`u Wa`awa`a Wildlife Reserve. Using the techniques developed for the `Oma`o, a captive propagation and release program was initiated in 1996 to aid the recovery of the endangered Puaiohi. Fifteen viable Puaiohi eggs were collected from the wild (1996–1997) to establish a captive breeding flock to produce birds for re‐introduction. These Puaiohi reproduced for the first time in captivity in 1998 (total Puaiohi chicks reared in captivity 1996–1998 = 41). In 1999, 14 captive‐bred Puaiohi were re‐introduced into the Alaka`i Swamp, Kaua`i. These captive‐bred birds reproduced and fledged seven chicks in the wild after release. This is the first endangered passerine recovery program using this broad spectrum of management techniques (collection of wild eggs, artificial incubation, hand‐rearing, captive‐breeding, and release) in which re‐introduced birds survived and bred in the wild. Long‐term population monitoring will be published separately [BRD, in preparation]. Zoo Biol 19:263–277, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Factors affecting pair compatibility in captive kangaroo rats,Dipodomys heermanni

Captive propagation is a critical component of the Morro Bay Kangaroo Rat Recovery Plan, but past attempts to breed this and other kangaroo rat species have had mixed success. In three experiments using a closely related surrogate species, the Lompoc kangaroo rat, we evaluated the effects of familiarity and long-term housing experience on the behavior of captive males and females during dyadic encounters in an attempt to devise husbandry methods most conducive to reproduction. Females exhibited less aggression with and were more likely to allow physical contact with familiar males, provided the males had had previous social experience, such as that provided by living in close sensory contact with female conspecifics. Socialized males (those housed adjacent to females, separated from them by a wire mesh screen) were cautious, rather than persistent, when interacting with unfamiliar or anestrous females. Males housed in isolation from conspecifics were persistent whether or not they were familiar to the female. Pairs with very long periods of familiarity exhibited more nonaggressive contact than newly acquainted pairs. Results suggest that housing structures allowing longterm sensory contact between potential mates may improve breeding success in kangaroo rats and other solitary, aggressive species. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

1 This article is a US Government work and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of America.

     

Approaches to the reintroduction of the Bali mynah

The Bali mynah (Leucopsar rothschildi) is an endangered bird endemic to the island of Bali, Indonesia. The wild population of approximately 17 birds is confined to West Bali National Park (Taman Nasional Bali Barat). The species was intensively collected for the bird trade in the 1960s and 1970s, and poaching for the internal trade in Indonesia remains the primary threat to the wild population. We conducted an experimental release of one captive-bred and five confiscated, wild origin Bali mynahs on the small offshore island Pulau Menjangan. Released birds readily developed flight and foraging skills. Of the six, radio-tagged birds released, one was stolen, three were likely killed by a raptor, and two were returned successfully to the wild. Many challenges remain for the conservation of this species, including poaching in the national park, disease in the captive population, predation by raptors on newly released birds, and destruction of essential habitat. Results suggest that the Bali mynah is a suitable species for an expanded propagation and release program, provided that poaching is curtailed and disease in birds intended for release can be eliminated. Zoo Biol 17:267–284, 1998. © 1998 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Genetic diversity in captive and wild Matschie's tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus matschiei) from Huon Peninsula,Papua New Guinea,based on mtDNA control region sequences

The Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) Matschie's tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus matschiei) population is at a critical point for assessing long-term viability. This population, established from 19 genetically uncharacterized D. matschiei, has endured a founder effect because only four individuals contributed the majority of offspring. The highly variable mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region was sequenced for five of the female-founders by examining extant representatives of their maternal lineage and compared with wild (n=13) and captive (n=18) D. matschiei from Papua New Guinea (PNG). AZA female-founder D. matschiei control region haplotype diversity was low, compared with captive D. matschiei held in PNG. AZA D. matschiei have only two control region haplotypes because four out of five AZA female-founder D. matschiei had an identical sequence. Both AZA haplotypes were identified among the 17 wild and captive D. matschiei haplotypes from PNG. Genomic DNA extracted from wild D. matschiei fecal samples was a reliable source of mtDNA that could be used for a larger scale study. We recommend a nuclear DNA genetic analysis to more fully characterize AZA D. matschiei genetic diversity and to assist their Species Survival Plan^®. An improved understanding of D. matschiei genetics will contribute substantially to the conservation of these unique animals both in captivity and the wild. Zoo Biol 28:183–196, 2009. © 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Birth of offspring following artificial insemination in the common marmoset,Callithrix jacchus

The objective of the study was to develop a method for artificial insemination (AI) in the common marmoset, a New World primate species. For AI to be successful, sperm must be deposited at an appropriate site and time in the female reproductive tract, details of which are currently not available for Callitrichid species. Epididymal sperm were deposited in the cervix of 18 marmoset monkeys (Callithrix jacchus) around the time of expected ovulation using either 3, 2, or 1 inseminations. Six out of 18 females conceived, resulting in the first reported births following AI in this species. These pregnancies show that the presence of coagulum in the vagina and the stimulus of the female reproductive tract by natural mating are not essential for effective sperm transport in this species. Although 3 different timing regimes for sperm deposition relative to ovulation were employed, no protocol was demonstrably better than the others in terms of number of conceptions. The proportions of motile, live, and morphologically normal sperm in the suspensions used for AI were comparable with published values for ejaculates from fertile male macaques. These preliminary results indicate that births are possible following AI in marmosets: the technique could be used to aid effective genetic management of the species and possibly to facilitate captive breeding of endangered Callitrichids. Am J Primatol 41:37–43, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Dietary choices by four captive slender lorises (Loris tardigradus) when presented with various insect life stages

The slender loris (Loris tardigradus) is a rare, nocturnal prosimian found only in the tropical rainforest of southern India and Sri Lanka. Little is known about their diet, though it is assumed that insects comprise a majority of their wild diet. Based on this assumption, captive lorises are offered a variety of insects or insect life stages; the species of insect or the life stage is often determined by what is easiest to buy or rear. Captive lorises at the Duke Lemur Center (DLC) were offered the opportunity to choose which life stage of mealworms (Tenebrio molito), superworms (Zophobus morio), or waxworms (Galleria mellonella) they preferred. The DLC captive lorises did not select the largest life stages of any insect offered. They preferred the larvae stage to the adult stage in all three insect species, and males and females had different insect species and life stage preferences. Zoo Biol 30:189–198, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Reproductive behavior of the captive Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822)

Understanding reproductive behavior is important for the conservation of endangered species, but research on the reproductive behavior of Sunda pangolins (Manis javanica Desmarest, 1822) is still very scarce. In this study, we used focal animal sampling and all-occurrence recording by an infrared monitor to observe the behaviors of two Sunda pangolins during a 5-day breeding period at the Pangolin Research Base for Artificial Rescue and Conservation Breeding of South China Normal University (PRB-SCNU). The behavioral characteristics and breeding strategies were analyzed, and the results were discussed together with information on other captive Sunda pangolin pairs at PRB-SCNU. The results found that there was no obvious estrus behavior in the captive female, while the male could exhibit sexual excitement and courtship behavior after a brief introduction period. Repeated copulation continued over many days after the female accepted the courtship. The average duration of copulatory behavior was 248.9 ± 148.7 s (n = 25), and all copulation occurred between 20:00 and 08:00 hr in the natural day–night photoperiod. The mating position of Sunda pangolins was lateral–ventral and was classified as the ninth or eleventh pattern under both Dewsbury's and Dixson's classification systems. This study can provide scientific guidance for the captive breeding and management of Sunda pangolins and other pangolin species, which is of great significance for ex situ conservation tactics.     

Behavioral differences as predictors of breeding status in captive cheetahs

Individual behavioral variation of 44 adult captive‐born cheetahs, Acinonyx jubatus, was assessed using observer and keeper ratings on a variety of behavioral attributes. Inter‐rater consensus was high for most questionnaire items, several of which were significantly correlated with direct behavioral measures recorded in a mirror‐image experiment. Principal component analysis was applied to identify patterns of individual variation as measured by observer and keeper ratings. Three major components, labeled as tense‐fearful, excitable‐vocal, and aggressive, accounted for 69% of the observed variation. Females showed significantly higher scores on the component tense‐fearful than males. Non‐breeders of both sexes scored significantly higher on the component tense‐fearful than breeders. Assessment of individual behavioral variation through questionnaire ratings may therefore provide a simple and non‐invasive tool for predicting an individual's ability to adjust to the constraints of certain husbandry regimens and to reproduce in captivity. Simple measures of behavioral attributes may offer new insights for solving breeding problems and improving conservation management of endangered species in captivity. Zoo Biol 18:335–349, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Trends in the captive breeding of threatened and endangered birds in British zoos, 1988–1997

The aim of this study was to assess trends in captive breeding of threatened and endangered bird species in British zoos. The measures we recorded were: 1) the total number of species held, 2) the percentage of species held that are listed in the IUCN Red List, 3) the percentage of endangered species breeding, and 4) the number of species in managed breeding programs. These data were gathered from the bird inventories of 10 representative British zoos for the years 1988 and 1997. The data for measures 1–3 were compared between the 2 years using a Wilcoxon matched‐pairs test. We found that the zoos maintained the same number of species (W=10.5; n=10; P=0.093; median=87.5 and 78 for 1988 and 1997, respectively). However, there was a significant increase in the number of birds held that fit each of the IUCN's conservation categories (Endangered: W=43.0; n=10; P<0.05, median=1.48 and 6.64 for 1988 and 1997, respectively; Vulnerable: W=53.0; n=10; P<0.05, median=3.33 and 10.05 for 1988 and 1997, respectively; and Rare: W=55.0; n=10; P<0.01, median=0.00 and 8.33 for 1988 and 1997, respectively). Overall, the percentage of threatened species kept in zoos increased from a median of 4.81 in 1988 to 25.02 in 1997. During this period there was an increase in the number of species in each category of the IUCN Red List. No difference was found in the number of threatened species breeding between 1988 and 1997. Zoo Biol 23:85–89, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Successful captive breeding of Mitchell's water monitor,Varanus mitchelli (Mertens 1958), at Perth Zoo

Mitchell's water monitors (Varanus mitchelli) have been maintained on display at Perth Zoo since 1997. They are generally a timid species but have been maintained and bred in a mixed species water feature exhibit. In this article we describe their captive management and behavior with an insight into their reproductive biology. Between 2002 and 2005, 11 clutches were laid ranging from 13 to 27 (X? = 20) eggs from one female. Egg size ranged between 3.00 and 6.08 g (X? = 4.77 g) in weight, 22.8 and 31.9 mm (X? = 28.3 mm) in length, and 11.1 and 19.3 mm (X? = 17.1 mm) in width. Oviposition included double and triple clutches ranging between 41 and 60 days apart (X? = 48 days), events n = 6. Four clutches were incubated at three different temperatures and hatchlings emerged after 157–289 days. The weight of the hatchlings ranged between 2.60 and 4.52 g (X? = 4.34 g). Total length ranged between 140.1 and 178.0 mm (X? = 165.9 mm) and snout–vent length ranged from 53.8 to 70.0 (X? = 64.4 mm). Juvenile growth and development information is presented from hatching through to approximately 3 years of age. Zoo Biol 29:615–625, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Hand-raising a philippine tarsier,Tarsius syrichta

An infant female tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) weighing 20 g at birth was removed for hand-raising at 1 day of age. The infant was maintained in an incubator (32°C, 80% humidity), and fed every 2–3 hours for the first 10 days of life. The infant received a varied formula for the first 4 days. Esbilac (3.3–8.0 cc daily) was given for days 5–10. From days 11 to 67 the infant was fed 6.5–8.0 cc of formula seven times daily. A liver fortified formula was introduced on day 53. Birthweight doubled by day 41 and tripled by day 101. The animals first successful jump was observed at day 25. On day 68 she captured and ate her first live prey. Introduction to adult tarsiers began on day 60. This is the first successful hand-raising of any species of tarsier, which is a genus that reproduces poorly in captivity.     

Ultrasound examination and behavior scoring of captive broadnose sevengill sharks,Notorynchus cepedianus (Peron, 1807)

Serial ultrasound examination of four mature female sevengill sharks (Notorynchus cepedianus) was carried out over 18 months. Monitoring the reproductive cycle and development of follicles and fetuses in sharks in a noninvasive manner using this technique has not been reported previously. Sharks were caught out of the “Oceanarium” tank by divers using a specially made catch‐out bag, and brought to a holding area for examination. A behavior scoring system was used to monitor the impact of regular handling on the well‐being of the animals. Ultrasound showed the growth and regression of follicles in sevengill ovaries, and allowed an approximation of the reproductive stage of these sharks. Monitoring behavior at five time points during the procedure showed that regular handling of sharks for clinical studies could be done with minimal impact on animal welfare. The ability to follow reproductive events in elasmobranches using ultrasonography is an important step in the application of assisted reproductive technology in these species. Assisted reproductive technology, such as monitoring female reproductive cycles and artificial insemination, could potentially be used to maintain genetic diversity and compliment aquaria‐based breeding programs for endangered species such as the gray nurse shark (Carcharias taurus). Zoo Biol 26:383–395, 2007. © 2007 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Successful care and propagation of the endangered amargosa vole (Microtus californicus scirpensis) in captivity

The Amargosa vole (Microtus californicus scirpensis) is a highlyendangered rodent endemic to a small stretch of the California portion of the Amargosa River basin in Inyo County's Mojave Desert. Although the Amargosa vole has survived in this naturally fragmented ecosystem for thousands of years, recent habitat degradation due to land development, water drainage, and marsh exploitation has further isolated the species and reduced its available habitat. As part of a conservation effort to preserve the species, a captive breeding population was established in 2014 to serve as an insurance colony and as a source of individuals to release into the wild as restored habitat becomes available. As this is the only captive colony for this species, there is little published information about appropriate care and husbandry for the Amargosa vole. Here we provide information about behavior, diet, reproduction, drug sensitivities, and diseases that affect successful captive care. We also provide recommendations for housing and disease management to preserve natural behaviors and defenses in captive‐born animals.     

Skeletal development in Pan paniscus with comparisons to Pan troglodytes

Fusion of skeletal elements provides markers for timing of growth and is one component of a chimpanzee's physical development. Epiphyseal closure defines bone growth and signals a mature skeleton. Most of what we know about timing of development in chimpanzees derives from dental studies on Pan troglodytes. Much less is known about the sister species, Pan paniscus, with few in captivity and a wild range restricted to central Africa. Here, we report on the timing of skeletal fusion for female captive P. paniscus (n = 5) whose known ages range from 0.83 to age 11.68 years. Observations on the skeletons were made after the individuals were dissected and bones cleaned. Comparisons with 10 female captive P. troglodytes confirm a generally uniform pattern in the sequence of skeletal fusion in the two captive species. We also compared the P. paniscus to a sample of three unknown‐aged female wild P. paniscus, and 10 female wild P. troglodytes of known age from the Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire. The sequence of teeth emergence to bone fusion is generally consistent between the two species, with slight variations in late juvenile and subadult stages. The direct‐age comparisons show that skeletal growth in captive P. paniscus is accelerated compared with both captive and wild P. troglodytes populations. The skeletal data combined with dental stages have implications for estimating the life stage of immature skeletal materials of wild P. paniscus and for more broadly comparing the skeletal growth rates among captive and wild chimpanzees (Pan), Homo sapiens, and fossil hominins. Am J Phys Anthropol 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Reproductive biology and ecology of white‐winged trumpeters (Psophia leucoptera) and recommendations for the breeding of captive trumpeters

The reproductive biology and ecology of a wild population of white‐winged trumpeters (Psophia leucoptera) were studied in southeastern Peru from 1983 to 1987. Because little information is available about any of the trumpeter species and because trumpeters have proven difficult to breed in captivity, information relevant to breeding and management of captive trumpeters is reported in this paper. White‐winged trumpeters lived in territorial social groups that ranged in size from four to 13 individuals. A typical territorial group contained three adult males, two adult females, and several sexually immature offspring, but smaller temporary groups sometimes formed for the duration of the breeding season. Only the dominant female contributed eggs to the clutch, and all adult males in the group competed to obtain copulations with her. Eggs were laid in elevated nesting cavities and no nest was constructed. The average clutch size was three eggs and incubation was not begun until the final egg was laid. The dominant male and female shared most of the incubation duties, but subordinate males covered approximately 15% of the incubation shifts. Eggs hatched approximately 27 days after incubation was begun and chicks left the nesting cavity the day after they hatched. Chicks were completely dependent on older birds to feed them for their first 3 weeks and then gradually began to feed themselves more and more food. The subordinate adult males fed chicks the most food, the dominant male and female and older offspring fed chicks an intermediate amount, and the subordinate adult female fed chicks the least. Young chicks behaved aggressively toward each other but were separated by adults before they injured each other. If at least one chick from the clutch survived, trumpeters did not breed again until the beginning of the next breeding season the following year. Zoo Biol 19:65–84, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Common ringtail possum (Pseudocheirus peregrinus) as a management model for the Pseudocheiridae: Reproductive scope,behavior, and biomedical values on a browse-free diet

The purposes of this study were to determine 1) the life history characteristics of a captive colony of the arboreal folivore Pseudocheirus peregrinus maintained on a browse free diet under enhanced laboratory conditions, 2) the direction and magnitude of life history differences from wild population values, and 3) the feasibility of developing captive colonies of this and related species for conservation and research programs. Rates of reproduction, growth, and development; demographic trends; behavioral patterns pertinent to exhibition; and management and medical techniques are reported. Fecundity was 67% greater than that of wild populations and there was an approximate four-fold increase in the rate of offspring survival to sexual maturity. These trends were due largely to reduced post-pouch emergence mortality and the decay of reproductive seasonality. The results indicate that a properly designed “artificial” diet can support significantly enhanced reproduction in a trophic specialist. Other demographic, developmental, and behavioral measures found to be consistent with those reported from wild populations indicate that there was no significant life history distortion caused by the management regime. Empirical data are presented showing that the common ringtail is nocturnal, has low rates of activity, and has specific space and substrate preferences. These results suggest ways in which the animals' physical environment can be manipulated to improve exhibition. We conclude that the reproductive rates of other ringtail possum species might also be enhanced under comparable management conditions.     

The ontogeny of nursing in Babyrousa babyrussa and a comparison with domestic pigs

The nursing behavior of eight babirusa (Babyrousa babyrussa) infants was studied. Four were from single births and four were from twin births. The age at weaning, the time of day and number of nursing bouts per day, the mean duration of nursing bouts, and whether the offspring or the dam ended nursing bouts were all examined. It was found that although twins are weaned earlier than single offspring, there were no other statistically significant differences in nursing behavior of single and twin offspring. The ontogeny of nursing behavior in this species is described and some comparisons are made between the nursing behavior of babirusa and nursing in the domestic pig (Sus scrofa) and selected suids. Babirusa dams take longer to wean their offspring, allow them to nurse longer, and end nursing bouts less often than domestic pigs. The differences in behavior between babirusa and domestic pig nursing behavior may be related to differences in the number of offspring produced by the two species and the amount of parental investment in each offspring. Zoo Biol 19:253–262, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Captive reproduction of the Jamaican iguana (Cyclura collei)

The Jamaican iguana (Cyclura collei) was considered to be extinct until its rediscovery in 1990 in the Hellshire Hills region of Jamaica. Between 1994 and 1996, several wild caught juveniles were placed in six North American zoological institutions including the Indianapolis Zoo. The intent was to establish a self-sustaining captive population outside of Jamaica in order to serve as an ancillary population should the wild numbers decline. Several environmental parameters such as temperature, humidity, photoperiod and diet were manipulated to encourage reproduction in captivity. In 2006, two clutches of eggs were deposited by two separate females for a total of 35 eggs. Twenty-six eggs were fertile and 22 hatched after a 76–83-day incubation at 30.3–30.8°C (86.5–86.7°F). The average weight of the neonates was 26.4 g and the average total length was 21.7 cm. This successful reproduction of C. collei constitutes the first North American hatching for this species. Environmental parameters, incubation techniques and neonate morphometry can serve as a baseline for further propagation of the species. This represents a positive milestone for the continuing conservation of this critically endangered species. Zoo Biol 28:343–349, 2009. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

North American orangutan species survival plan: Current status and progress in the 1980s

The SSP program for orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus ssp.) was initiated in 1982. Since that time, the Propagation Group has dealt with issues related to improving captive management of the species. Prior to 1982, most orangutans in North America were managed as a single species, though a number of institutions did house their Bornean and Sumatran specimens separately. However, the determination of race at that time was made largely on the basis of physical appearance, a method subsequently proven imprecise. A major achievement of the SSP has been the refinement of orangutan subspecies determination; SSP-sponsored karotyping has determined, on a chromosomal level, the true subspecies of virtually every orangutan managed by the SSP. The validity of these results has been confirmed by recent fieldwork, also completed under the auspices of the SSP. Since 1985, as a result of these captive and field data, the SSP has held to the policy that subspecific hybrid orangutans should not be produced; to that end, there is a moratorium on the breeding of hybrid animals. Another significant step taken by the SSP group is the completion of the sophisticated demographic and genetic analyses, leading to the development of a Masterplan for this species and its captive management. Goals for the near future include refinement of the Masterplan analyses and publication of a new international studbook for the species.