Cyclic 3′,5′-AMP phosphodiesterase in Physarum polycephalum I. Chemotaxis toward inhibitors and cyclic nucleotides

The effect of several inhibitors of the enzyme cyclic 3′,5′-AMP phosphodiesterase as chemoattractants in Physarum polycephalum was examined. Of the compounds tested, 4-(3-butoxy-4-methoxybenzyl)-2-imidazolidinone (Roche 20-1724/001) and 1-ethyl-4-(isopropylidinehydrazino)-1H-pyrazolo-(3,4-b)-pyridine-5-carboxylic acid ethyl ester, hydrochloride (Squibb 20009) were the most potent attractants. 3-Isobutyl-1-methyl xanthine, theophylline, and morin (a flavanoid) were moderate attractants and sometimes gave negative chemotaxis at high concentrations. Cyclic 3′,5′-AMP was an effective, but not potent attractant. A repellent effect following the positive chemotactic action was sometimes observed with cyclic 3′,5′-AMP at concentrations as high as 1 · 10^?2 M. Dibutyryl cyclic AMP appeared to be a somewhat more potent attractant than cyclic 3′,5′-AMP. The 8-thiomethyl and 8-bromoderivatives of cyclic AMP, which are poorly hydrolyzed by the phosphodiesterase, were not attractants in Physarum. Possible participation of cyclic 3′,5′-AMP in the directional movement in P. polycephalum is discussed.     

Occurrence of adenosine 2′,5′-bisphosphate in rat liver

Adenosine 2′,5′-bisphosphate (pAp) is present in liver from 2-day-fasted rats, at a concentration of around 1 μM. pAp was obtained through perchloric acid extraction of the liver followed by two successive DEAE-cellulose chromatographies and an ion-pair high-pressure liquid chromatography. Both pAp extracted from liver and that obtained from a commercial source showed the same pattern of hydrolysis by alkaline phosphatase, i.e., more 5′-AMP than 2′-AMP was obtained as an intermediate of the reaction.     

Stereoselective formation of bis(alpha-aminoacyl) esters of 5'-AMP suggests a primitive peptide synthesizing system with a preference for L-amino acids

In the biosynthesis of proteins, each amino acid passes from the aminoacyl adenylate to become an amino acid ester and finally a 2' (3') peptidyl ester of the AMP residue at the end of a tRNA. Consequently, the chemistry of protein synthesis is the chemistry of aminoacyl and peptidyl AMP. Our data has revealed properties of 5'-AMP and its esters which should allow the preferential catalytic synthesis of L-amino acid peptides via a bis(2', 3'-aminoacyl) ester intermediate. Results in this paper concern one step in the proposed process and show that preexisting Ac-L-Phe monoester reacts about 2.5-times faster to form diester than preexisting Ac-D-Phe monoester.     

Mixed anhydrides (phosphoric-carboxyl) are also formed in the esterification of 5′-amp with n-acetylaminoacyl imidazolides: Implications regarding the origin of protein synthesis

Procedures for the formation of aminoacyl esters of monoribonucleotides with aminoacyl imidazolides were first reported by Gottikhet al. and summarized in 1970. This reaction has been widely used by us and numbers of other workers as a convenient means of preparing aminoacyl esters of nucleotides. We have previously reported that, under conditions of excess imidazolide, large amounts of bis 2, 3 esters are formed in addition to the monoesters, (Laceyet al., 1991). However, to our knowledge, no one has reported that in addition to the esters, relatively large amounts of the mixed anhydride, with the amino acid carboxyl attached to the phosphate, are also formed at short reaction times. We report here on the relative amounts of anhydride and esters formed in this reaction of racemic mixtures of eleven N-acetyl amino acid imidazolides with 5-AMP and discuss the relevance of the findings to the origin of protein synthesis.     

In vitro hydrolysis of prostaglandin F2α, esters by serum or plasma of different animal species

The methyl ester of prostaglandin F_2α was hydrolyzed by undiluted human serum with a t1/2 of about 5 min, and the ethyl ester was hydrolyzed at one third of this rate. The 2′-propyl and 3′-pentyl esters were de-esterified at a rapid initial rate and at a slower second rate beginning after 10 min incubation. Alterations at the carbon-15 position of prostaglandin F_2α such as 15(S)-15-methyl or the 15-acetate or 15-hexanoate resulted in a reduction in the rate of hydrolysis of the primary esters at carbon-1.Species variation in serum esterase was very large, with rat serum showing activity more than 500 times that of human serum. Rates of hydrolysis in monkey serum were lower than that of human, and activity in the peripheral blood of the dog was extremely low. Plasma esterase activity in the mesenteric blood of the dog was several times higher than that found in the plasma from the peripheral circulation.     

Cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase from dormant tubers of Jerusalem artichoke

An enzyme, which hydrolyzes 3′,5′-cyclic AMP to 3′-AMP and 5′-AMP, has been isolated from dormant tubers of Jerusalem artichoke and purified 850 × with a recovery of 15% of total activity. The partially purified enzyme differs greatly from both animal and bacterial phosphodiesterases in terms of pH optimum, substrate specificity, cation dependence and sensitivity to methylxanthines. The plant hormones are without effect, whereas ATP, 5′-AMP, 3′-AMP, inorganic phosphate and pyrophophosphate are inhibitors. The enzyme seems to be greatly inhibited in vivo by inorganic phosphate during dormancy.     

Substrate Specificity of Nuclease P1

Nuclease P₁ cleaved substantially all phosphodiester bonds in rRNA, tRNA, poly(I), poly(U), poly(A), poly(C), poly(G), poly(I)·poly(C), native DNA and heat-denatured DNA to produce exclusively 5′-mononucleotides. Single-stranded polynucleotides were much more susceptible than double-stranded ones. Influence of pH and ionic strength on the hydrolysis rate significantly varied with the kind of polynucleotides. The enzyme also hydrolyzed 3′-phosphomonoester bonds in 3′-AMP, 3′-GMP, 3′-UMP, 3′-CMP, 3′-dAMP, 3′-dGMP, 3′-dCMP and 3′-dTMP. Ribonucleoside 3′-monophosphates were hydrolyzed 20 to 50 times faster than the corresponding 3′-deoxyribonucleotides. Base preference of the enzyme for 3′-ribonucleotides was in the order of G>A>C≧U, whereas that for 3′-deoxyribo-nucleotides was in the order of C≧T>A≧G. The 3′-phosphomonoester bonds in nucleoside 3′, 5′-diphosphates, coenzyme A and dinucleotides bearing 3′-phosphate were hydrolyzed at a rate similar to that for the corresponding 3′-mononucleotides. Adenosine 2′-monophosphate was highly resistant, being split at less than 1/3,000 the rate at which 3′-AMP was split.     

Cyclic 3',5'-adenosine monophosphate stimulates trehalose degradation in baker's yeast

The levels of cyclic 3′,5′-AMP and trehalose, as well as the specific activity of the trehalase have been investigated in cells of baker's yeast ($\text{Saccharomyces cerevisiae}$) during the lag phase preceding growth. During the first few minutes a substantial increase in the intracellular concentration of cyclic 3′,5′-AMP was observed, followed by a 6–8 fold increase in trehalase activity concomitant with the rapid degradation of trehalose. Cell free extracts prepared from resting yeast were shown to contain a cryptic trehalase, which under physiological conditions could be activated by cyclic 3′,5′-AMP to the same degree as $\text{in vivo}$. These observations suggest that in the lag phase of growth, the level of trehalose in baker's yeast is under control of a system, regulated by the level of cyclic 3′,5′-AMP.     

Effects of thyrotropin,prostaglandin E1 and iodide on cyclic 3′,5′-AMP concentration in dog thyroid slices

The kinetics and concentration effect on the relationship of thyrotropin (TSH) action on cyclic 3′,5′-AMP concentration has been studied in dog thyroid slices in vitro. TSH markedly increased cyclic 3′,5′-AMP level after 5 min, the effect reached a plateau after 10–60 min and slowly declined afterwards. TSH enhanced in parallel the cyclic 3′,5′-AMP level and the binding of iodide to proteins. For this latter effect of TSH, the four criteria of the validity of the Sutherland model for a hormonal action are therefore fulfilled. The effect of TSH on cyclic 3′,5′-AMP concentration in thyroid did not require the presence of a methylxanthine inhibitor of cyclic 3′,5′-AMP phosphodiesterase in the medium. Prostaglandin E1 increased cyclic 3′,5′-AMP levels in control and stimulated slices. The omission of Ca²⁺ in the incubation medium decreased the action of TSH but partial replacement of Na⁺ by K⁺ had little effect. Iodide, 1 μM to 100 μM, inhibited the action of TSH. This inhibitory effect was relieved by NaClO₄, methimazole and propylthiouracil (1 mM). The possible role of this inhibitory effect in an intracellular regulatory mechanism is discussed.     

Hydrolysis of steryl esters by a lipase (Lip 3) from Candida rugosa

A well-known lipase, Lip 3 of Candida rugosa, was purified to homogeneity from a commercial lipase preparation, using hydrophobic interaction and anion exchange chromatography. Lip 3, which has been reported to act on cholesteryl esters, was also found to be active on plant-derived steryl esters. Lip 3 had optimal activity at pH 5-7 and below 55 degrees C. It was able to hydrolyse steryl esters totally in a clear micellar aqueous solution. However, the action on a dispersed colloidal steryl ester solution was limited and only about half of the steryl esters were degraded. The degree of hydrolysis was not improved by addition of fresh enzyme. The composition of released fatty acids and sterols was, however, almost identical to that obtained by alkaline hydrolysis, showing that all the different steryl esters were hydrolysed equally and that none of the individual components were responsible for incomplete hydrolysis. Thus, it appeared that the physical state of the colloidal steryl ester dispersion limited the action of Lip 3. Wood resins contain both triglycerides and steryl esters among the hydrophobic components, which create problems in papermaking. The simultaneous enzymatic hydrolysis of triglycerides and steryl ester is therefore of considerable interest and Lip 3 is the first enzyme reported to act on both triglycerides and steryl esters.     

Modes of Binding of 2′-AMP to RNase T1 A Computer Modeling Study

Abstract

The modes of binding of adenosine 2′-monophosphate (2′-AMP) to the enzyme ribonuclease (RNase) T₁ were determined by computer modelling studies. The phosphate moiety of 2′-AMP binds at the primary phosphate binding site. However, adenine can occupy two distinct sites - (1) The primary base binding site where the guanine of 2′-GMP binds and (2) The subsite close to the N1 subsite for the base on the 3′-side of guanine in a guanyl dinucleotide. The minimum energy conformers corresponding to the two modes of binding of 2′-AMP to RNase T₁ were found to be of nearly the same energy implying that in solution 2′-AMP binds to the enzyme in both modes. The conformation of the inhibitor and the predicted hydrogen bonding scheme for the RNase T₁ - 2′-AMP complex in the second binding mode (S) agrees well with the reported x-ray crystallographic study. The existence of the first mode of binding explains the experimental observations that RNase T₁ catalyses the hydrolysis of phosphodiester bonds adjacent to adenosine at high enzyme concentrations. A comparison of the interactions of 2′-AMP and 2′-GMP with RNase T₁ reveals that Glu58 and Asn98 at the phosphate binding site and Glu46 at the base binding site preferentially stabilise the enzyme - 2′-GMP complex.     

Measurement of human placental 5′-AMP deaminase activity by radiometric assay

The level of 5′-AMP deaminase in homogenates of human term placenta has been measured by means of a simple radiometric assay. The assay uses ¹⁴C-labeled AMP as substrate and incorporates conditions of pH and K⁺ concentration, which optimize the 5′-AMP deaminase activity, and inhibitors of 5′-nucleotidase and adenosine deaminase to reduce interference from these enzymes. Assay products are separated by descending paper chromatography and quantitated by liquid scintillation counting. The activity of 5′-AMP deaminase in human term placenta determined by this assay was 474 ± 37 nmol min^?1 g^?1 at 30°C and was less than the 5′-AMP phosphatase activity evident under the same assay conditions. The assay is suitable for measurement of 5′-AMP deaminase in extracts of other tissues in which high levels of phosphatases and adenosine deaminase preclude assay of 5′-AMP deaminase by such techniques as ultraviolet absorption changes or ammonia estimation.     

Dipeptide Synthesis by an Aminopeptidase from Streptomyces septatus TH-2 and Its Application to Synthesis of Biologically Active Peptides

Dipeptide synthesis by aminopeptidase from Streptomyces septatus TH-2 (SSAP) was demonstrated using free amino acid as an acyl donor and aminoacyl methyl ester as an acyl acceptor in 98% methanol (MeOH). SSAP retained its activity after more than 100 h in 98% MeOH, and in the case of phenylalanyl-phenylalanine methyl ester synthesis, the enzyme reaction reached equilibrium when more than 50% of the free phenylalanine was converted to the product. In an investigation of the specificity of SSAP toward acyl donors and acyl acceptors, SSAP showed a broad specificity toward various free amino acids and aminoacyl methyl esters. Furthermore, we applied SSAP to the synthesis of several biologically active peptides, such as aspartyl-phenylalanine, alanyl-tyrosine, and valyl-tyrosine methyl esters.     

Dipeptide synthesis by an aminopeptidase from Streptomyces septatus TH-2 and its application to synthesis of biologically active peptides

Dipeptide synthesis by aminopeptidase from Streptomyces septatus TH-2 (SSAP) was demonstrated using free amino acid as an acyl donor and aminoacyl methyl ester as an acyl acceptor in 98% methanol (MeOH). SSAP retained its activity after more than 100 h in 98% MeOH, and in the case of phenylalanyl-phenylalanine methyl ester synthesis, the enzyme reaction reached equilibrium when more than 50% of the free phenylalanine was converted to the product. In an investigation of the specificity of SSAP toward acyl donors and acyl acceptors, SSAP showed a broad specificity toward various free amino acids and aminoacyl methyl esters. Furthermore, we applied SSAP to the synthesis of several biologically active peptides, such as aspartyl-phenylalanine, alanyl-tyrosine, and valyl-tyrosine methyl esters.     

Cyclic 3′,5′-nucleotide phosphodiesterase: A continuous titrimetric assay

A direct and continuous assay for cyclic 3′,5′-nucleotide phosphodiesterase has been developed. This method is based on the fact that the phosphate group of adenosine 3′,5′-phosphate has one titratable species whereas that of 5′-adenosine monophosphate has two. Hydrolysis of cyclic AMP to 5′-AMP by phosphodiesterase is accompanied by a stoichiometric generation of protons. The rate of addition of an alkaline solution to the reaction mixture to maintain a constant pH with a pH stat is thus stoichiometrically related to the rate of cyclic AMP hydrolysis. A reaction producing 10 mμmoles of H⁺ or more per minute in 1.5 ml of reaction mixture is accurately measured by this technique. Duplicates are usually within 5% of each other. Results obtained by the titrimetric method correlate well with those obtained by conventional methods. This technique has been successfully used to assay phosphodiesterase of bovine brain in the purified as well as the crude stage.     

N,N′-Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide Inhibition of Dunaliella Growth,and Restoration by Some Adenine Nucleotides and Plant Growth Regulators

N,N′-Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCCD), an inhibitor of membrane-bound ATPase, strongly inhibited the growth, as measured by an increase in cell number, of Dunaliella tertiolecta. However, this inhibition was reversed by simultaneous application of adenosine 5′-triphosphate (ATP) or adenosine 2′-monophosphate (2′-AMP). Adenosine and adenosine 5′-diphosphate (ADP) were ineffective in restroration of the DCCD-inhibited growth. Gibberellin A₃ (GA₃) and 2,4- dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) also reversed the inhibition of DCCD on D. tertiolecta growth, although these plant growth regulators did not promote an increase in cell number.     

THE EFFECT OF ELECTRICAL STIMULATION UPON THE ACCUMULATION OF ADENOSINE 3'',5''-PHOSPHATE IN ISOLATED CEREBRAL TISSUE

The application of electrical pulses to slices of guinea pig cerebral cortex led to an increase in the levels of adenosine 3′,5′-phosphate (cyclic 3′,5′-AMP) of more than 11-fold within 10 min. This effect of electrical pulses was severely reduced in the presence of theophylline. Cyclic 3′,5′-AMP accumulation in slices was increased in the presence of norepinephrine and histamine about 1·5-fold and six-fold, respectively; the effect of electrical pulses was augmented in the presence of maximal amounts of either amine. For these and other reasons, the accumulation of cyclic 3′,5′-AMP induced by electrical stimulation cannot be ascribed to the release and action of either histamine or norepinephrine.     

Studies on 5′-Nucleotidase-Lacking Mutants Derived from Bacillus subtilis

Two 5′-nucleotidase-lacking mutants, R–42 and A–1, were derived from an adenine-requiring mutant, B. subtilis 1145–2–83, which has productivity of both inosine and hypoxanthine. Strain A–1 accumulated 5′-IMP as well as inosine and hypoxanthine, and strain R–42 accumulated 5′-IMP and 5′-GMP as well as inosine and hypoxanthine in their culture fluids. These mutants responded to either adenine or adenosine, but did not to 5′-AMP. This fact suggests that adenine or adenosine may be incorporated into the cells, but 5′-AMP may neither be incorporated into the cells nor be degraded during culture. 5′-GMP was converted to 5′-IMP, and 5′-AMP was phosphrylated to ADP in the growing culture of strain A–1.     

S1 nuclease of Aspergillus oryzae: a glycoprotein with an associated nucleotidase activity

S₁ nuclease (EC 3.1.30.1) of Aspergillus oryzae has been purified 1600-fold by a procedure designed to remove traces of contaminating phosphatases. The nearly homogeneous enzyme was found to be a glycoprotein with a carbohydrate content of 18%. At pH 4.5 the enzyme preparation hydrolyzed single-stranded DNA, RNA, 3′-AMP, and 2′-AMP at relative rates of 100, 52, 13, and 0.05, respectively. The 3′-nucleotidase activity of this single-strand specific nuclease is inhibited by single-stranded DNA but not by double-stranded DNA. Three forms of the enzyme, with isoelectric points of 3.35, 3.53, and 3.67, were observed on electrofocusing, and each form exhibited the same relative activity on single-stranded DNA and 3′-AMP. Enzymatic hydrolysis of nucleotides occurred over a broad range of pH, with maximal activity at pH 6–7. Ribonucleotides were hydrolyzed approximately 100-fold more rapidly than deoxyribonucleotides. A high degree of base specificity was not observed. The 3′-nucleotidase activity was stimulated by Zn²⁺, but not by other divalent cations tested.     

5′-磷酸腺苷对小鼠脾细胞氧化应激损伤的保护作用

目的研究5′-磷酸腺苷（5′-AMP）体外抗氧化和对体外氧化损伤脾细胞的损伤修复能力。方法用化学比色法测定5′-AMP体外清除二苯代苦味酰基自由基（DPPH自由基）的能力;建立过氧化氢（H2O2）氧化损伤体外培养小鼠脾细胞模型,用MTT法检测5′-AMP修复受损伤脾细胞的作用,并分析其对细胞抗氧化体系及抗氧化能力的影响。结果5′-AMP具有剂量依赖性的体外抗氧化和清除活性氧能力,添加0.5mmol/L、1mmol/L、5mmol/L和10mmol/L5′-AMP均能显著修复H2O2诱导的脾细胞氧化损伤（P〈0.05）,总抗氧化能力和抗氧化酶类活力（P〈0.01）,5′-AMP添加量大于1mmol/L时,可显著降低丙二醛（MDA）含量（P〈0.01）。其细胞培养液的氧自由基（ROS）水平逐渐降低,5′-AMP添加量为10mmol/L时,ROS水平接近对照组水平。结论5′-磷酸腺苷能显著修复氧化损伤,具有显著的抗氧化作用。