Competition versus opportunism: Diet and trophic niche relationship of two sympatric apex carnivores in a tropical forest

There is a little understanding of how apex carnivores partition their diet to coexist. We studied food habit and trophic niche overlap of two apex carnivores, tiger and leopard in the tropical forest of Similipal tiger reserve, eastern India. We used line transect and scat analysis method, to estimate the prey availability and determine the diet and prey selection of two apex carnivores. Tigers consumed mostly large and medium-sized prey, whereas leopards mostly consumed medium and small-sized prey. Both carnivores were not random in their consumption of prey, sambar and wild pigs were selectively consumed by tigers, whereas leopards selectively consumed wild pigs, barking deer and mouse deer. Dietary overlap between two carnivore species was moderate (Pianka's niche overlap index: 0.55), and trophic niche breadth (Levin's standardized niche breadth) of the leopard (0.52) was greater than that of the tiger (0.37). Overall, tigers exhibited specialized feeding habits, whereas leopards showed generalist feeding habits. Our study highlights the opportunistic nature of leopards and probably a reason for the species successfully coexist with tigers.     

Feeding habits and niche partitioning in a predator guild composed of tigers, leopards and dholes in a temperate ecosystem in central Bhutan

We describe the food habits, niche overlap and prey preferences in a predator guild comprised of tigers Panthera tigris , leopards Panthera pardus and dholes Cuon alpinus in a mountainous region of central Bhutan. Scat analyses revealed that these predators consumed 11 different prey species including livestock and rodents, of which leopards consumed 11. The combined relative occurrence of the three species, sambar Cervus unicolor , muntjac Munticus muntjac and wild pig Sus scrofa , constituted 42.7, 33.7 and 71.1% of the tiger, leopard and dhole diets, respectively, while livestock comprised 44.5, 73.4 and 15.9% of the prey consumed, respectively. Regression equations from earlier feeding trials were used to estimate the relative biomass and the numbers of prey consumed. Results showed that sambar featured more frequently than did muntjac and wild pig in the diets of tiger, leopard and dhole and contributed more relative biomass than did muntjac and wild pig. Sambar, muntjac and wild pig together provided 36.9, 28 and 63.1% of the biomass consumed by tigers, leopards and dholes respectively. All else being equal, there was evidence that all three predators ate livestock less than might have been expected on the basis of the abundance and high biomass of this prey category in the area. There was a high dietary niche overlap between the predators (Pianka's overlap index of 0.58–0.92), with a greater overlap between the two felid species than between the felids and the canid. This study provides evidence of a substantial diet overlap among the three sympatric carnivores, and thus highlights the potential for high intra-guild competition among them, especially given the relatively low density of prey.     

Predator–prey relationships in a middle Asian Montane steppe: Persian leopard versus urial wild sheep in Northeastern Iran

Management controversies arise when both of the prey and predator in an ecosystem are species of conservation concern. We investigated trophic interactions between the endangered Persian leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) and a declining mountain ungulate, urial wild sheep (Ovis vignei), on a high-altitude steppe of Iran. During two consecutive photo-trapping seasons of 1,300 nights in total, a minimum population of four adult leopards (one female and three males) was documented. Scat analysis indicated that urial wild sheep was the staple of the leopard diet with 48.44 % of total biomass consumed. Remains of domestic livestock in leopard scats were negligible yet alarming (14.53 % biomass consumed), followed by wild pigs (8.13 %) and wild goat (1.26 %). Financial costs of leopard depredation to livestock breeders during our study period were comparatively lower than livestock–leopard conflict hotspots across Iran. Using distance sampling, urial density was 15.8 individuals km^?2 (±SE 6.2), and a total biomass of 47,621.5 kg for wild ungulates in the study area was estimated. We estimated that the annual removal rate of urial by leopards during our study period was 9.4 % of the total urial population. We suggest that continuous monitoring of the leopard and prey populations to assess predation impact should be considered, particularly in areas where a single species comprises a remarkable proportion of the leopard diet. In the meantime, assessing probable conflicts with local communities is recommended as a parallel management action to ensure long-term human–leopard coexistence. Our findings will aid wildlife managers in prey-depleted arid environments of western Asia to identify susceptible wild prey populations to predation by large carnivores; hence, significantly contribute in development and implementation of effective conservation measures to mitigate management conflicts.     

Tiger and leopard co-occurrence: intraguild interactions in response to human and livestock disturbance

Intraguild interactions have important implications for carnivore demography and conservation. Differences in how predators respond to different forms of disturbance might alter their interaction patterns. We sought to understand how human and livestock disturbance impact co-occurrence of sympatric large carnivores such as tiger (Panthera tigris) and leopard (P. pardus) and thereby mediate the intraguild interaction pattern to enable coexistence of the species in a human-dominated landscape. We surveyed 361 locations in Chitwan National Park, Nepal, to examine how prey abundance and disturbance factors such as human and livestock presence might influence habitat use by tigers and leopards independently and when co-occurring. Single-species single-season models and two-species single-season models were developed to examine hypotheses on unconditional detection and occupancy and species interaction respectively. Pervasive human use of the park had negative impacts on tiger occupancy while the abundance of prey had a positive influence. Despite significant prey overlap between tigers and leopards, none of the native prey species predicted leopard habitat occupancy. However, habitats used extensively by livestock were also used by leopards. Further, we found strong evidence of intraguild competition. For instance tiger occupancy was higher in prey-rich areas and leopard occupancy was low in the sites where tigers were present. These findings, and a species interaction factor of < 1 clearly indicate that leopards avoid tigers, but their use of areas of disturbance enables them to persist in fringe habitats. We provide empirical evidence of how intraguild interaction may result in habitat segregation between competing carnivores, while also showing that human and livestock use of the landscape create disturbance patterns that facilitate co-occurrence of the predators. Thus, because large carnivores compete, some disturbance may mediate coexistence in small protected areas. Understanding such interactions can help address important conservation challenges associated with maintaining diverse carnivore communities in small or disturbed landscapes.     

Primates are an important food resource for leopards (Panthera pardus) in Mahale,Tanzania

Leopard diets in the Kasoje area of the Mahale Mountains National Park, Tanzania, were analysed by inspecting prey remains in 256 scats. This area is unique as leopard density is high despite a relatively low density of medium-sized ungulates, regarded as the most preferred prey of leopards. At least eleven prey mammal species were confirmed in the scats. Small prey mammals up to 10 kg comprised 91.4% of the relative biomass consumed; the mean prey biomass in each scat was 7.6 kg. Blue duiker (31.2%) was the most dominant prey species, followed by the red colobus (29.2%), semi-terrestrial Cercopithecinae (the vervet monkey and yellow baboon combined) (10.5%) and the red-tailed monkey (9.9%). At the order level, the most consumed prey taxon was Primates (53.8%), followed by Cetartiodactyla (39.6%) and Rodentia (5.8%). Among primates, the blue monkey was the most preferred prey species, followed by the red colobus and semi-terrestrial Cercopithecinae. High consumption of primates is a unique characteristic of the leopards in Mahale. This trend exemplifies the flexibility of leopards in their choices of prey, and such flexibility may be one of the underlying reasons for leopards exhibiting the broadest global distribution among all wild felid species.     

Leopard abundance,distribution and food habits in the Mt. Rungwe–Kitulo landscape,Southern Tanzania

Between 2003 and 2010, 2178.5 km of transect was walked and 76 leopard scats counted in the Mt. Rungwe–Kitulo landscape. The number of scats per 10 km ranged between 0 and 0.83 in Mt Rungwe and between 0 and 1.41 in Kitulo. Leopards chiefly selected bamboo forest between 2500 and 2950 m asl. Some 126 interviews revealed that leopards were encountered more in the 1980s than latterly. Leopards used to attack livestock, but in the 1960s and 1970s, were heavily poisoned. We analysed 59 scats for undigested materials and compared them to a hair reference atlas. Some 135 different prey items were found, with an average of 2.3 items per scat. Some 14 samples were identified to species level and four to genus level. The average prey body weight was 5.9 kg. The diet was dominated by small mammals and rodent species up to 5.0 kg (59.57%) of biomass, followed by carnivores (29.14%), primate species (8.91%) and small rodents <1 kg (2.24%). The highest relative biomass consumed was prey classes of 1.1–5.0 kg (61.06%), followed by prey 5.1–50 kg (35.22%) and small rodents <1 kg (2.24%). The total absence of ungulate prey and conservation implications are discussed.     

Dietary partitioning of three large carnivores in Majete Wildlife Reserve,Malawi

Between 2011 and 2012, the carnivore guild in Majete Wildlife Reserve (MWR), Malawi, was restored following the reintroduction of lion (Panthera leo) and leopard (Panthera pardus). The aim of this study was to describe and compare the diet of lion, leopard and resident spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) using scat analysis. Lions and spotted hyaenas displayed the greatest dietary overlap (O_ab = 0.88) and selected mainly medium- to large-bodied prey species. Lions had a mean preferred prey weight of 120.33 ± 42.14 kg (SE), with warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) and waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) making up 60.64% of relative biomass consumed. Spotted hyaenas had a mean preferred prey weight of 102.40 ± 41.69 kg and had a more generalised diet (B_a = 0.46) compared to lions (B_a = 0.36). In contrast, leopards occupied a dietary niche substantially lower than that of lions and spotted hyaenas, selecting relatively smaller prey with a mean preferred prey weight of 27.50 ± 6.74 kg. Our results suggest that coexistence between the resident hyaena and reintroduced lion and leopard in MWR is facilitated by dietary partitioning. We advise long-term monitoring of reintroduced carnivores in small, enclosed reserves to assess their impacts on predator and prey populations.     

Diet and prey profiles of three sympatric large carnivores in Bandipur Tiger Reserve, India

We conducted a field study of diets of three sympatric large carnivores, the tiger Panthera tigris , the leopard Panthera pardus and the dhole Cuon alpinus in Bandipur Tiger Reserve, India, based on analyses of 381, 111 and 181 scats, respectively. The frequency of occurrence of prey items in scats was converted to relative biomass and number of prey consumed using regression equations based on earlier feeding trials. The results showed that although these predators kill ∼11–15 species of vertebrate prey, relatively abundant ungulate species provide 88–97% of biomass consumed by them. Although the dietary niche overlap among the three species was high (Pianka's index of 0.75–0.93), some specialized predation was observed. The largest ungulates, gaur Bos gaurus and sambar Cervus unicolor , provided 73% of biomass consumed by tigers, whereas medium-sized chital Axis axis and wild pig Sus scrofa formed 65 and 83% of the biomass intake of leopards and dholes, respectively. In terms of the relative numbers of prey animals killed by the three predators, chital, which is the most abundant prey species, dominated their diets (tiger=33%, leopard=39% and dhole=73%). The results of the study, in conjunction with earlier work, support the prediction that abundance of ungulate prey species, as well as their availability in different size classes, are both critical factors that facilitate sympatry among the three predators.     

Topcats and underdogs: intraguild interactions among three apex carnivores across Asia's forestscapes

Intraguild interactions among carnivores have long held the fascination of ecologists. Ranging from competition to facilitation and coexistence, these interactions and their complex interplay influence everything from species persistence to ecosystem functioning. Yet, the patterns and pathways of such interactions are far from understood in tropical forest systems, particularly across countries in the Global South. Here, we examined the determinants and consequences of competitive interactions between dholes Cuon alpinus and the two large felids (leopards Panthera pardus and tigers Panthera tigris) with which they most commonly co-occur across Asia. Using a combination of traditional and novel data sources (N = 118), we integrate information from spatial, temporal, and dietary niche dimensions. These three species have faced catastrophic declines in their extent of co-occurrence over the past century; most of their source populations are now confined to Protected Areas. Analysis of dyadic interactions between species pairs showed a clear social hierarchy. Tigers were dominant over dholes, although pack strength in dholes helped ameliorate some of these effects; leopards were subordinate to dholes. Population-level spatio-temporal interactions assessed at 25 locations across Asia did not show a clear pattern of overlap or avoidance between species pairs. Diet-profile assessments indicated that wild ungulate biomass consumption by tigers was highest, while leopards consumed more primate and livestock prey as compared to their co-predators. In terms of prey offtake (ratio of wild prey biomass consumed to biomass available), the three species together harvested 0.4–30.2% of available prey, with the highest offtake recorded from the location where the carnivores reach very high densities. When re-examined in the context of prey availability and offtake, locations with low wild prey availability showed spatial avoidance and temporal overlap among the carnivore pairs, and locations with high wild prey availability showed spatial overlap and temporal segregation. Based on these observations, we make predictions for 40 Protected Areas in India where temporally synchronous estimates of predator and prey densities are available. We expect that low prey availability will lead to higher competition, and in extreme cases, to the complete exclusion of one or more species. In Protected Areas with high prey availability, we expect intraguild coexistence and conspecific competition among carnivores, with spill-over to forest-edge habitats and subsequent prey-switching to livestock. We stress that dhole–leopard–tiger co-occurrence across their range is facilitated through an intricate yet fragile balance between prey availability, and intraguild and conspecific competition. Data gaps and limitations notwithstanding, our study shows how insights from fundamental ecology can be of immense utility for applied aspects like large predator conservation and management of human–carnivore interactions. Our findings also highlight potential avenues for future research on tropical carnivores that can broaden current understanding of intraguild competition in forest systems of Asia and beyond.     

No silver bullet? Snow leopard prey selection in Mt. Kangchenjunga,Nepal

In this study, we investigated the impact of domestic and wild prey availability on snow leopard prey preference in the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area of eastern Nepal—a region where small domestic livestock are absent and small wild ungulate prey are present. We took a comprehensive approach that combined fecal genetic sampling, macro‐ and microscopic analyses of snow leopard diets, and direct observation of blue sheep and livestock in the KCA. Out of the collected 88 putative snow leopard scat samples from 140 transects (290 km) in 27 (4 × 4 km²) sampling grid cells, 73 (83%) were confirmed to be from snow leopard. The genetic analysis accounted for 19 individual snow leopards (10 males and 9 females), with a mean population size estimate of 24 (95% CI: 19–29) and an average density of 3.9 snow leopards/100 km² within 609 km². The total available prey biomass of blue sheep and yak was estimated at 355,236 kg (505 kg yak/km² and 78 kg blue sheep/km²). From the available prey biomass, we estimated snow leopards consumed 7% annually, which comprised wild prey (49%), domestic livestock (45%), and 6% unidentified items. The estimated 47,736 kg blue sheep biomass gives a snow leopard‐to‐blue sheep ratio of 1:59 on a weight basis. The high preference of snow leopard to domestic livestock appears to be influenced by a much smaller available biomass of wild prey than in other regions of Nepal (e.g., 78 kg/km² in the KCA compared with a range of 200–300 kg/km² in other regions of Nepal). Along with livestock insurance scheme improvement, there needs to be a focus on improved livestock guarding, predator‐proof corrals as well as engaging and educating local people to be citizen scientists on the importance of snow leopard conservation, involving them in long‐term monitoring programs and promotion of ecotourism.     

Leopard diets and landowner perceptions of human wildlife conflict in the Soutpansberg Mountains,South Africa

Human-wildlife conflict between carnivores and livestock and game owners is an issue of high conservation concern and has led to the global decline of many large carnivore species. Research has shown that carnivores are often blamed for higher levels of predation of livestock and game than actually occurs and this often leads to retaliatory killing. The aim of this study was to obtain information via scat analysis on the range of prey species taken by leopards in the Soutpansberg Mountains, South Africa, and combine these data with self-reported accounts of livestock predation from local landowners to examine differences between real and perceived leopard predation. Results showed that despite landowners reporting frequent events of leopard predation of livestock and introduced farmed game across the Soutpansberg farming community, no evidence of these species were found in leopard diets. The most frequently eaten species by relative biomass were bushbuck, hyrax and vervet monkeys; in contrast, the farmers reported cattle and impala as often being taken by leopards. Despite sharing the landscape with domestic cattle and introduced game, leopards in the Soutpansberg do not frequently utilise these species as prey and instead focus their diets on wild species. Human-carnivore conflict can be reduced by overcoming the mismatch between actual and perceived levels of predation via landowner education, effective anti-predation measures, an improved government response to reports of livestock predation and potentially giving economic value to problem animals via trophy hunting.     

Effects of temporary closure of a national park on leopard movement and behaviour in tropical Asia

Across Asia protected areas serve as refuges for carnivores inside human-dominated landscapes. However, the creation of hard edges around reserve boundaries where conflicts with humans arise and disturbance from human activities inside the reserves may affect carnivore behaviour and ecology. Thailand’s largest protected area, Kaeng Krachan National Park (2915 km²) receives >100,000 visitors annually while maintaining an intact assemblage of prey species for large carnivores, making it a potentially important site for population recovery of leopards (Panthera pardus), tigers (Panthera tigris) and dholes (Cuon alpinus). We assessed the abundance of leopards and their prey base, and their response to changes in levels of human activity after an unexpected flooding event that resulted in the park being closed to visitors for >6 months. Using camera-traps, we identified 6 individual leopards and used spatially explicit capture-recapture (SECR) methods, incorporating humans and prey as covariates, to test for factors affecting the detection probability of leopards before and after the park closure. Leopard density was unchanged between the two periods, however the movement and activity patterns were clearly different. In the absence of tourist activity, leopards tended to move more frequently, leopard detection rates increased by 70% and activity shifted towards being more diurnal. The consequences of these changes in behaviour may include improved health, reproduction and survival. A management strategy involving seasonal closure of parks may serve to alleviate pressure on leopards and other carnivores. We recommend using information on abundance of large carnivores and their prey species, and human disturbance as the key indicators for long-term monitoring and management of protected areas in Southeast Asia.     

基于粪便DNA及宏条形码技术的食肉动物快速调查及食性分析

在陆地生态系统中, 大型食肉动物对于稳定食物网结构和生态系统功能有重要作用。在世界范围内, 由于栖息地丧失和破碎化、猎杀、人类活动干扰以及病原体的传播, 大型食肉动物生存正面临严重威胁, 多种食肉动物地理分布范围及种群数量大幅度缩减。如何有效保护大型食肉动物物种多样性及种群已经成为世界关注的焦点问题和保护生物学的重要研究方向。川西高原地处我国西南山地与青藏高原东缘交界地带, 属于世界生物多样性热点地区, 是世界大型食肉动物物种最丰富的地区之一, 而日益增强的人类活动可能会加剧对当地动植物资源的破坏, 进而威胁野生食肉动物的生存。获得准确的物种多样性信息及食肉动物食性数据有助于深入了解该地区生态系统结构及食物网关系, 对研究物种共存机制及生物多样性保护有重要意义。本研究通过从四川甘孜藏族自治州新龙县和石渠县野外采集的食肉动物粪便样品中提取DNA, 利用DNA条形码进行物种鉴定, 快速获得该地区食肉动物物种构成信息。38份粪便样品经鉴定来自于7种食肉动物, 分别为5种大型食肉动物(狼Canis lupus、棕熊Ursus arctos、豹Panthera pardus、雪豹P. unica、狗Canis lupus familiaris)和2种中小型食肉动物(豹猫Prionailurus bengalensis、赤狐Vulpes vulpes)。进一步利用高通量测序和宏条形码技术对7种食肉动物粪便中的食物DNA进行精准食性分析, 得到包含19种哺乳类、8种鸟类和1种鱼类共计28个不同的食物分子可操作分类单元(molecular operational taxonomic unit, MOTU)。结果显示, 狼、狗、棕熊最主要的食物来源为偶蹄目动物, 其中取食频率最高的物种为家牦牛(Bos grunniens); 而豹猫和赤狐食物中小型哺乳动物如啮齿目和兔形目占重要比例, 其中高原松田鼠(Neodon irene)和高原鼠兔(Ochotona curzoniae)被取食频率最高。豹和雪豹的食物分别为偶蹄目的中华斑羚(Naemorhedus griseus)和岩羊(Pseudois nayaur)。本研究显示了粪便DNA及宏条形码技术在食肉动物多样性快速调查及高通量精确食性分析中的应用前景, 并为此类研究提供了技术路线的有力借鉴。     

Hunting behaviour in West African forest leopards

The leopard (Panthera pardus) is a major predator of mammals within the rainforest ecosystem of West Africa. Most of the available information on leopard hunting behaviour comes from studies conducted in open savannah habitats, while little is known about forest leopards. Our radio‐tracking data and scat analysis show that forest leopards differ in various ways from the savannah populations. Forest leopards are diurnal and crepuscular hunters who follow the activity pattern of their prey species. They exhibit seasonal differences in activity patterns, and they develop highly individualized prey preferences. These findings challenge the widespread notion of leopards as opportunistic nocturnal predators.     

Prey preference of large carnivores in Anamalai Tiger Reserve,India

Prey preferences of large carnivores (tiger (Panthera tigris), leopard (Panthera pardus) and dhole (Cuon alpinus)) in the tropical forest of Anamalai Tiger Reserve (ATR) were evaluated. This was the first study in ATR to estimate the density of prey and the food habits of these large carnivores. The 958-km² intensive study area was found to have a high mammalian prey density (72.1 animals per square kilometre) with wild boar (20.61 animals per square kilometre) and chital (20.54 animals per square kilometre) being the most common species, followed by nilgiri tahr (13.6 animals per square kilometre). When the density figures were multiplied by the average weight of each prey species, a high biomass density of 14,204 kg km⁻² was obtained for the intensive study area. Scat analysis and incidental kill observation were used to determine the dietary composition of these predators. During the study from the period of March 2001 to April 2004, 1,145 tiger scats, 595 leopard scats and 2,074 dhole scats were collected and analysed. Kill data were based on direct observation of 66 tiger kills and 39 leopard kills. Sambar, with a density of 6.54 kg km⁻² was the preferred prey for these carnivores. Sambar constitutes 35% of the overall diet of tiger, whereas it constitutes 17% and 25% in leopard and dhole diets, respectively. Chital was utilized less than sambar in the range of about 7%, 11% and 15% by tiger, leopard and dhole, respectively. Predator diet was estimated more accurately by scat analysis, which reveals 30% of smaller prey species in leopard’s diet, which was not observed by kill data. This study reveals that ATR harbours high prey density, and these large carnivores seem mostly dependent on the wild prey rather than on domestic livestock as in some other areas in the subcontinent. These factors make ATR a potential area for long-term conservation of these endangered carnivores.     

Diet and prey selection of clouded leopards and tigers in Laos

In Southeast Asia, conservation of ‘Vulnerable’ clouded leopards (Neofelis nebulosa) and ‘Endangered’ tigers (Panthera tigris) might depend on the management of their preferred prey because large felid populations are limited by the availability of suitable prey. However, the diet of clouded leopards has never been determined, so the preferred prey of this felid remains unknown. The diet of tigers in the region has been studied only from one protected‐area complex in western Thailand, but prey preferences were not determined. To better understand the primary and preferred prey of threatened felids, we used DNA‐confirmed scats and prey surveys to determine the diet and prey selection of clouded leopards and tigers in a hilly evergreen forest in northern Laos. For clouded leopards, the primary prey was wild pig (Sus scrofa; 33% biomass consumed), followed by greater hog badger (Arctonyx collaris; 28%), small rodents (15%), and mainland serow (Capricornis sumatraensis; 13%; hereafter, serow). For tigers, the primary prey was wild pig (44%), followed by serow (18%), sambar (Rusa unicolor; 12%), and Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus; 10%). Compared to availability, serow was positively selected by both clouded leopards (D = 0.69) and tigers (0.61), whereas all other ungulate species were consumed in proportion to the availability or avoided. Our results indicate that clouded leopards are generalist predators with a wide prey spectrum. Nonetheless, mid‐sized ungulates (50–150 kg) comprised nearly half of their diet, and were the preferred prey, supporting a previous hypothesis that the enlarged gape and elongated canines of clouded leopards are adaptations for killing large prey. Because serow was the only ungulate preferred by both felids, we recommend that serow populations be monitored and managed to help conservation efforts for clouded leopards and tigers, at least in hilly evergreen forests of Southeast Asia.     

Prey of the Persian Leopard (Panthera pardus saxicolor) in a mixed forest-steppe landscape in northeastern Iran (Mammalia: Felidae)

We carried out a dietary analysis of Persian Leopards, Panthera pardus saxicolor, in a temperate region in north-eastern Iran, where the largest population nucleus exists across the subspecies range. We investigated 113 faecal samples collected between February 2009 and March 2010 in Golestan National Park. Faecal analysis revealed that leopards predominantly preyed upon wild ungulates, with the Wild Boar, Sus scrofa, being the most important prey species in terms of frequency and biomass. Eleven different prey items were identified, 7 of which were ungulates, comprising 99% of the total food items. We also found a spatial pattern in the prey composition of leopards: cervids were predominantly found in forest landscapes, whereas Wild Sheep, Ovis orientalis, was mainly found in steppe habitats, revealing the leopards’ predation on medium-to large-sized ungulates. Livestock remains were mainly extracted from steppe samples, but the overall contribution to the leopard diet pattern (approximately 8.5% of consumed biomass) suggested that conflict with human communities, at least within the investigated core parts of the National Park, is not a major concern. The study provides the first illustration of the Persian Leopard's dietary composition in a temperate area with a relatively high diversity of available prey, and can be a baseline for future investigation and human-leopard interaction monitoring     

Prey preferences of the leopard (Panthera pardus)

Leopards Panthera pardus have a catholic diet and are generally thought to prey on medium-sized ungulates; however, knowledge on which species are actually preferred and avoided is lacking, along with an understanding of why such preferences arise. Twenty-nine published and four unpublished studies of leopard diet that had relative prey abundance estimates associated with them were analysed from 13 countries in 41 different spatial locations or temporal periods throughout the distribution of the leopard. A Jacobs' index value was calculated for each prey species in each study and the mean of these was then tested against a mean of 0 using t or sign tests for preference or avoidance. Leopards preferentially prey upon species within a weight range of 10–40 kg. Regression plots suggest that the most preferred mass of leopard prey is 25 kg, whereas the mean body mass of significantly preferred prey is 23 kg. Leopards prefer prey within this body mass range, which occur in small herds, in dense habitat and afford the hunter minimal risk of injury during capture. Consequently, impala, bushbuck and common duiker are significantly preferred, with chital likely to also be preferred with a larger sample size from Asian sites. Species outside the preferred weight range are generally avoided, as are species that are restricted to open vegetation or that have sufficient anti-predator strategies. The ratio of mean leopard body mass with that of their preferred prey is less than 1 and may be a reflection of their solitary hunting strategy. This model will allow us to predict the diet of leopards in areas where dietary information is lacking, also providing information to assist wildlife managers and conservation bodies on predator carrying capacity and predator–prey interactions.     

基于分子宏条形码分析四川卧龙国家级自然保护区雪豹的食性

作为中亚和青藏高原山地生态系统中的顶级捕食者, 雪豹(Panthera uncia)对于维持食物网结构和生态系统稳定性有重要作用。了解雪豹的食性组成和变化对于理解其生态系统功能和物种间相互作用有重要意义。以往的雪豹食性分析多基于对其粪便中食物残渣的形态学鉴定, 但准确度受人员经验和主观因素影响较大。邛崃山脉位于雪豹分布区东南缘, 该区域的雪豹种群规模小且相对孤立, 研究匮乏。本研究基于非损伤性取样, 在邛崃山脉的卧龙国家级保护区采集疑似雪豹粪便样品38份, 首先提取粪便DNA, 并扩增线粒体DNA 16S rRNA基因片段进行分子物种鉴定, 确定其中22份为雪豹粪便样品。随后, 利用脊椎动物通用引物和雪豹特异性阻抑引物扩增粪便DNA中的食物成分, 并进行高通量测序, 分析雪豹食性构成。食性分析结果显示岩羊(Pseudois nayaur)是卧龙地区雪豹最主要的食物, 在67%的样品中均有检出。家牦牛(Bos grunniens)在33%的样品中出现, 也在雪豹食性中占较高比例。此外, 鼠兔(Ochotona spp.)和鸟类也在少量样品中发现。可见, 野生猎物是卧龙地区雪豹的主要食物资源; 与大世界大多数其他地区的雪豹食性相同, 野生大型有蹄类是雪豹最重要的食物。然而家畜(牦牛)在卧龙雪豹食谱中有相当高的占比, 显示该区域内可能存在较为严重的由雪豹捕食散养家畜引起的人兽冲突问题。     

Prey preference of snow leopard (Panthera uncia) in South Gobi, Mongolia

Accurate information about the diet of large carnivores that are elusive and inhabit inaccessible terrain, is required to properly design conservation strategies. Predation on livestock and retaliatory killing of predators have become serious issues throughout the range of the snow leopard. Several feeding ecology studies of snow leopards have been conducted using classical approaches. These techniques have inherent limitations in their ability to properly identify both snow leopard feces and prey taxa. To examine the frequency of livestock prey and nearly-threatened argali in the diet of the snow leopard, we employed the recently developed DNA-based diet approach to study a snow leopard population located in the Tost Mountains, South Gobi, Mongolia. After DNA was extracted from the feces, a region of ～100 bp long from mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene was amplified, making use of universal primers for vertebrates and a blocking oligonucleotide specific to snow leopard DNA. The amplicons were then sequenced using a next-generation sequencing platform. We observed a total of five different prey items from 81 fecal samples. Siberian ibex predominated the diet (in 70.4% of the feces), followed by domestic goat (17.3%) and argali sheep (8.6%). The major part of the diet was comprised of large ungulates (in 98.8% of the feces) including wild ungulates (79%) and domestic livestock (19.7%). The findings of the present study will help to understand the feeding ecology of the snow leopard, as well as to address the conservation and management issues pertaining to this wild cat.