Glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase at the crossroad: the structure of Schistosoma mansoni thioredoxin glutathione reductase

Thioredoxin glutathione reductase (TGR) is a key flavoenzyme expressed by schistosomes that bridges two detoxification pathways crucial for the parasite survival in the host's organism. In this article we report the crystal structure (at 2.2 A resolution) of TGR from Schistosoma mansoni (SmTGR), deleted in the last two residues. The structure reveals the peculiar architecture of this chimeric enzyme: the small Glutaredoxin (Grx) domain at the N-terminus is joined to the large thioredoxin reductase (TR) one via an extended complementary surface, involving residues not conserved in the Grx superfamily; the TR domain interacts with an identical partner via its C-terminal domain, forming a dimer with a twisted "W" shape. Although lacking the penultimate Selenocysteine residue (Sec), the enzyme is still able to reduce oxidized glutathione. These data update the interpretation of the interdomain communication in TGR enzymes. The possible function of this enzyme in pathogenic parasites is discussed.     

The mechanism of action of the nitrosourea anti-tumor drugs on thioredoxin reductase, glutathione reductase and ribonucleotide reductase

The nitrosoureas BCNU, CCNU, ACNU, and Fotemustine covalently deactivate thioredoxin reductase, glutathione reductase and ribonucleotide reductase by alkylating their thiolate active sites. Since thioredoxin reductase and glutathione reductase function as alternative electron donors in the biosynthesis of deoxyribonucleotides, catalyzed by ribonucleotide reductase, the inhibition of these electron transfer systems by the nitrosoureas could determine the cytostatic property of this homologous series of drugs. A detailed study of the kinetics and mechanism for the inhibition of purified thioredoxin reductases from human metastatic melanotic and amelanotic melanomas by the nitrosoureas showed significantly different inhibitor constants. This difference is due to the regulation of these proteins by calcium. Calcium protects thioredoxin reductase from deactivation by the nitrosoureas. In addition, it has been shown that reduced thioredoxin displaces the nitrosourea-inhibitor complex from the active site of thioredoxin reductase to fully reactivate enzyme purified from human metastatic amelanotic melanoma. It has been possible to label the active sites of thioredoxin reductase and glutathione reductase by using chloro[14C]ethyl Fotemustine, resulting in the alkylation of the thiolate active sites to produce chloro[14C]ethyl ether-enzyme inhibitor complexes. These complexes can be reactivated via reduced thioredoxin and reduced glutathione, respectively, by a beta-elimination reaction yielding [14C]ethylene and chloride ions as reaction products.     

Investigation of the arylnitroso reductase activity of pig liver aldehyde reductase.

The reduction of p-nitroso-N-dimethylaniline, p-nitroso-N-diethylaniline, p-nitrosophenol and p-nitroso-N-phenylaniline with NADPH in the presence of aldehyde reductases 1 and 2 is described. The reactivity of these nitroso substrates is increased by hydrophobic substituents and those promoting OH- elimination from the molecule of the reduced substrate. NN-Dimethylbenzoquinonedi-iminium cation was proved to be the reaction product formed from p-nitroso-N-dimethylaniline. The kinetics of the reduction of p-nitroso-N-dimethylaniline catalysed with aldehyde reductase 1 are rather complex at pH 7, and the preferred-pathway mechanism is probably involved. The reaction sequence approaches the ordered pattern at pH 8.5. It was shown that NADPH in equilibrium NADP+ recyclization proceeds in the presence of NADP+, p-nitroso-N-dimethylaniline, cyclohexanol and aldehyde reductase 1, the alcohol oxidation being the slowest step in this reaction. However, the rate of cyclohexanol oxidation surpasses that of the dissociation of NADPH from the enzyme.     

The methionine sulphoxide reductase activity of the yeast dimethyl sulphoxide reductase system

Abstract Glycyl- l -methionine sulphoxide and N-acetyl- l -methionine sulphoxide were less effective inhibitors of the dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO) reductase activity of Saccharomyces cerevisiae NCYC240 than was l -methionine (±)-sulphoxide. Methionine sulphoxide reductase and DMSO reductase activities from crude extracts co-purified over five purification steps and the two activities eluted from columns in exactly the same fractions. Both activities were sensitive to the same inhibitors. It was concluded that: (1) the DMSO reductase activity of S. cerevisiae is a property of a methionine sulphoxide reductase different from that of Black et al. [J. Biol. Chem. 235 (1960) 2910–2916], and (2) free methionine sulphoxide rather than peptidyl methionine sulphoxide is probably the enzyme's true substrate.     

Crystal structure of CHO reductase, a member of the aldo-keto reductase superfamily

Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) reductase is an enzyme belonging to the aldo-keto reductase (AKR) superfamily that is induced by the aldehyde-containing protease inhibitor ALLN (Inoue, Sharma, Schimke, et al., J Biol Chem 1993;268: 5894). It shows 70% sequence identity to human aldose reductase (Hyndman, Takenoshita, Vera, et al., J Biol Chem 1997;272:13286), which is a target for drug design because of its implication in diabetic complications. We have determined the crystal structure of CHO reductase complexed with nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP)+ to 2.4 A resolution. Similar to aldose reductase and other AKRs, CHO reductase is an alpha/beta TIM barrel enzyme with cofactor bound in an extended conformation. All key residues involved in cofactor binding are conserved with respect to other AKR members. CHO reductase shows a high degree of sequence identity (91%) with another AKR member, FR-1 (mouse fibroblast growth factor-regulated protein), especially around the variable C-terminal end of the protein and has a similar substrate binding pocket that is larger than that of aldose reductase. However, there are distinct differences that can account for differences in substrate specificity. Trp111, which lies horizontal to the substrate pocket in all other AKR members is perpendicular in CHO reductase and is accompanied by movement of Leu300. This coupled with movement of loops A, B, and C away from the active site region accounts for the ability of CHO reductase to bind larger substrates. The position of Trp219 is significantly altered with respect to aldose reductase and appears to release Cys298 from steric constraints. These studies show that AKRs such as CHO reductase are excellent models for examining the effects of subtle changes in amino acid sequence and alignment on binding and catalysis.     

Photosynthesis and the induction of nitrate reductase and nitrite reductase in bean leaves

Summary In laaves of Phaseolus vulgaris L. cv. Prelude, the light-induced increase in activity of NADH-nitrate oxidoreductase (E.C.1.6.6.2; NAR) and reduced benzylviologennitrite oxidoreductase (E.C.1.6.6.4; NIR) starts at a certain stage in the development of the chloroplasts. In leaves with completely developed chloroplasts, a higher increase in activity of NAR and NIR is observed, after induction by the addition of nitrate, in the light than in the dark. DCMU inhibits the increase in activity of the two enzymes in the light. Both in the light in the presence of DCMU, and in the dark the increase in activity reaches a higher level by the addition of sucrose.Induction of NAR, but not of NIR, can be observed in excised etiolated leaves. No induction is found in leaves of intact etiolated seedlings.The relation between photosynthetic reactions and the increase in activity of NAR and NIR is discussed. It is suggested that NADH, indirectly formed by photosynthesis, protects NAR and affects in this way the balance between synthesis and breakdown of the enzyme. The increase in activity of NIR is possibly influenced by the presence of reduced ferredoxin.Abbreviations CAP D-threo-chloramphenicol - DCMU 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea - NAR nitrate reductase - NIR nitrite reductase     

NADH-ferric reductase activity associated with dihydropteridine reductase

In mammals dietary ferric iron is reduced to ferrous iron for more efficient absorption by the intestine. Analysis of a pig duodenal membrane fraction revealed two NADH-dependent ferric reductase activities, one associated with a b-type cytochrome and the other not. Purification and characterization of the non-cytochrome ferric reductase identified a 31 kDa protein. MALDI-MS analysis and amino acid sequencing identified the ferric reductase as being related to the 26 kDa liver NADH-dependent quinoid dihydropteridine reductase (DHPR). The NADH-dependent DHPR ferric reductase activity was found to be pteridine-independent since exhaustive dialysis did not reduce activity and heat-inactivation destroyed activity. In intestinal Caco-2 cells, DHPR mRNA levels were found to be regulated by iron. Thus, DHPR appears to be a dual function enzyme, a NADH-dependent dihydopteridine reductase and an iron-regulated, NADH-dependent, pteridine-independent ferric reductase.     

Carbonyl reductase activity of sepiapterin reductase from rat erythrocytes

A homogeneous preparation of sepiapterin reductase, an enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of tetrahydrobiopterin, from rat erythrocytes was found to be responsible for the reduction with NADPH of various carbonyl compounds of non-pteridine derivatives including some vicinal dicarbonyl compounds which were reported in the previous paper (Katoh, S. and Sueoka, T. (1984) Biochem, Biophys. Res. Commun. 118, 859-866) in addition to the general substrate, sepiapterin (2-amino-4-hydroxy-6-lactoyl-7,8-dihydropteridine). The compounds sensitive as substrates of the enzyme were quinones, e.g., p-quinone and menadione; other vicinal dicarbonyls, e.g., methylglyoxal and phenylglyoxal; monoaldehydes, e.g., p-nitrobenzaldehyde; and monoketones, e.g., acetophenone, acetoin, propiophenone and benzylacetone. Rutin, dicoumarol, indomethacin, and ethacrynic acid inhibited the enzyme activity toward either a carbonyl compound of a non-pteridine derivative or sepiapterin as substrate. Sepiapterin reductase is quite similar to general aldo-keto reductases, especially to carbonyl reductase.     

Carbonyl reductase activity of sepiapterin reductase from rat erythrocytes

A homogeneous preparation of sepiapterin reductase, an enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of tetrahydrobiopterin, from rat erythrocytes was found to be responsible for the reduction with NADPH of various carbonyl compounds of non-pteridine derivatives including some vicinal dicarbonyl compounds which were reported in the previous paper (Katoh, S. and Sueoka, T. (1984) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 118, 859–866) in addition to the general substrate, sepiapterin (2-amino-4-hydroxy-6-lactoyl-7,8-dihydropteridine). The compounds sensitive as substrates of the enzyme were quinones, e.g., p-quinone and menadione; other vicinal dicarbonyls, e.g., methylglyoxal and phenylglyoxal; monoaldehydes, e.g., p-nitrobenzaldehyde; and monoketones, e.g., acetophenone, acetoin, propiophenone and benzylacetone. Rutin, dicoumarol, indomethacin, and ethacrynic acid inhibited the enzyme activity toward either a carbonyl compound of a non-pteridine derivative or sepiapterin as substrate. Sepiapterin reductase is quite similar to general aldo-keto reductases, especially to carbonyl reductase.     

Regeneration of the antioxidant ubiquinol by lipoamide dehydrogenase, thioredoxin reductase and glutathione reductase

Ubiquinol is a powerful antioxidant, which is oxidized in action and needs to be replaced or regenerated to be capable of a sustained effort. This article summarises current knowledge of extramitochondrial reduction of ubiquinone by three flavoenzymes, i.e. lipoamide dehydrogenase, glutathione reductase and thioredoxin reductase, belonging to the same pyridine nucleotide-disulfide oxidoreductase family. These three enzymes are the most efficient extramitochondrial ubiquinone reductases so far described. The reduction of ubiquinone by lipoamide dehydrogenase and glutathione reductase is potently stimulated by zinc and the highest rate of reduction is achieved at acidic pH and the rates are equal with either NADPH or NADH as co-factors. The most efficient ubiquinone reductases are mammalian cytosolic thioredoxin reductases, which are selenoenzymes with a number of biological functions. Reduction of ubiquinone by thioredoxin reductase is in contrast to the other two enzymes investigated, inhibited by zinc and shows a sharp physiological pH optimum at pH 7.5. Furthermore, the reaction is selenium dependent as revealed from experiments using truncated and mutant forms of the enzyme and also in a cellular context by selenium treatment of transfected thioredoxin reductase overexpressing stable cell lines. The reduction of ubiquinone by the three enzymes offers a multifunctional system for extramitochondrial regeneration of an important antioxidant.     

Effect of glucose on the induced synthesis of bacterial respiratory nitrate reductase and tetrathionate reductase

The activities of respiratory nitrate reductase and tetrathionate reductase inCitrobacter growing anaerobically in the presence of nitrate or tetrathionate were determined. Both activities were three times higher in cells growing on lactose than in glucose-growing cells. Also, the ability of washed, non-growing cells to form both reductases was greatly diminished when glucose served as the energy source during previous growth. The effect was not specific for glucose and was not due to lack of amino acids.     

Kinetic studies of the induction of nitrate reductase and cytochrome c reductase in the fungus Aspergillus nidulans

In an earlier paper (Cove, 1966) it was reported that the kinetics of appearance of nitrate reductase (NADPH–nitrate oxidoreductase, EC 1.6.6.3) on the addition of nitrate to a growing culture of Aspergillus nidulans were different in certain respects from those found for many Escherichia coli enzymes. When urea is used as an initial nitrogen source, a further difference is found: enzyme synthesis is no longer continuous. This interruption of synthesis does not appear to be due to synchronous cell division in the culture, nor to be due to accumulation of ammonia. Fluctuations in the intracellular concentration of nitrate, though appearing to be partly responsible for the discontinuity of enzyme syntheses, cannot account for all the observations. Two related hypotheses are put forward to explain this discontinuity of synthesis; each suggests that nitrate reductase is intimately concerned with its own synthesis. One possibility is that the enzyme when it is not in the form of a complex with nitrate is a co-repressor of its own synthesis, and the other that the enzyme is its own repressor.     

Characterization of the quinone reductase activity of the ferric reductase B protein from Paracoccus denitrificans

The ferric reductase B (FerB) protein of Paracoccus denitrificans exhibits activity of an NAD(P)H: Fe(III) chelate, chromate and quinone oxidoreductase. Sequence analysis places FerB in a family of soluble flavin-containing quinone reductases. The enzyme reduces a range of quinone substrates, including derivatives of 1,4-benzoquinone and 1,2- and 1,4-naphthoquinone, via a ping-pong kinetic mechanism. Dicoumarol and Cibacron Blue 3GA are competitive inhibitors of NADH oxidation. In the case of benzoquinones, FerB apparently acts through a two-electron transfer process, whereas in the case of naphthoquinones, one-electron reduction takes place resulting in the formation of semiquinone radicals. A ferB mutant strain exhibited an increased resistance to 1,4-naphthoquinone, attributable to the absence of the FerB-mediated redox cycling. The ferB promoter displayed a high basal activity throughout the growth of P. denitrificans, which could not be further enhanced by addition of different types of naphthoquinones. This indicates that the ferB gene is expressed constitutively.     

Inheritance of nitrite reductase and regulation of nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, and glutamine synthetase isozymes

Banding patterns of nitrate reductase (NR), nitrite reductase (NiR), and glutamine synthetase (GS) from leaves of diploid barley (Hordeum vulgare), tetraploid wheat (Triticum durum), hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum), and tetraploid wild oats (Avena barbata) were compared following starch gel electrophoresis. Two NR isozymes, which appeared to be under different regulatory control, were observed in each of the three species. The activity of the more slowly migrating nitrate reductase isozyme (NR1) was induced by NO3- in green seedlings and cycloheximide inhibited induction. However, the activity of the faster NR isozyme (NR2) was unaffected by addition of KNO3, and it was not affected by treatments of cycloheximide or chloramphenicol. Only a single isozyme of nitrite reductase was detected in surveys of three tetraploid and 18 hexaploid wheat, and 48 barley accessions; however, three isozymes associated with different ecotypes were detected in the wild oats. Inheritance patterns showed that two of the wild oat isozymes were governed by a single Mendelian locus with two codominant alleles; however, no variation was detected for the third isozyme. Treatment of excised barely and wild oat seedlings with cycloheximide and chloramphenicol showed that induction of NiR activity was greatly inhibited by cycloheximide, but only slightly by chloramphenicol. Only a single GS isozyme was detected in extracts of green leaves of wheat, barley, and wild oat seedlings. No electrophoretic variation was observed within or among any of these three species. Thus, this enzyme appears to be the most structurally conserved of the three enzymes.     

Role of light in the synthesis of nitrate reductase and nitrite reductase in rice seedlings

1. In rice seedlings synthesis of methyl viologen-nitrite reductase was stimulated by light, as was that of NADH-nitrate oxidoreductase (EC 1.6.6.1). A small residual effect of light on the synthesis of the enzymes persisted in the dark for a short time. 2. In etiolated seedlings exposed to light and nitrate, a lag period of 3h was necessary before enzyme synthesis commenced, whereas in green seedlings kept in the dark for 36h, synthesis of both the enzymes started as soon as light and nitrate were provided. 3. Experiments with cycloheximide suggested that fresh protein synthesis in light was necessary for formation of active enzymes. Mere activation by light of inactive enzymes or their precursors, was not involved. 4. In green seedlings synthesis of nitrite reductase was more sensitive to chloramphenicol than that of nitrate reductase. In chloramphenicol-treated etiolated seedlings, however, synthesis of both the enzymes was inhibited to the same extent on subsequent light-treatment. 5. A close correlation was observed between inhibition of the Hill reaction by 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea and simazin [2-chloro-4,6-bis(ethylamino)-s-triazine] (at high concentration) and the inhibition of enzyme synthesis. At lower concentrations, however, simazin stimulated nitrate reductase. 6. In a single leaf synthesis of enzymes was observed only in portions exposed to light, whereas little activity was present in the dark covered part. 7. CO(2) deprivation severely inhibited the synthesis of enzymes in the light. Sucrose could not reverse this effect. 8. In excised embryos cultured in synthetic media containing sucrose, light was also essential for enzyme formation. 9. It is suggested that redox changes taking place in the green tissues as a result of the Hill reaction create conditions favourable for the induced synthesis of nitrate reductase and nitrite reductase.     

Human carbonyl reductase 1 is an S-nitrosoglutathione reductase

Human carbonyl reductase 1 (hCBR1) is an NADPH-dependent short chain dehydrogenase/reductase with broad substrate specificity and is thought to be responsible for the in vivo reduction of quinones, prostaglandins, and other carbonyl-containing compounds including xenobiotics. In addition, hCBR1 possesses a glutathione binding site that allows for increased affinity toward GSH-conjugated molecules. It has been suggested that the GSH-binding site is near the active site; however, no structures with GSH or GSH conjugates have been reported. We have solved the x-ray crystal structures of hCBR1 and a substrate mimic in complex with GSH and the catalytically inert GSH conjugate hydroxymethylglutathione (HMGSH). The structures reveal the GSH-binding site and provide insight into the affinity determinants for GSH-conjugated substrates. We further demonstrate that the structural isostere of HMGSH, S-nitrosoglutathione, is an ideal hCBR1 substrate (Km = 30 microm, kcat = 450 min(-1)) with kinetic constants comparable with the best known hCBR1 substrates. Furthermore, we demonstrate that hCBR1 dependent GSNO reduction occurs in A549 lung adenocarcinoma cell lysates and suggest that hCBR1 may be involved in regulation of tissue levels of GSNO.