The effect of α-aminoisobutyric acid on wood decay and wood spoilage fungi

The amino acid analogue α-aminoisobutyric acid (AIB) decreased linear extension growth in fifteen out of sixteen wood decay and wood spoilage fungi. In Serpula lacrimans inhibition of extension growth by AIB was accompanied by an increase in the frequency with which the hyphae of the fungus initiated branches. AIB was shown to have a preservative effect against Lentinus lepideus, Serpula lacrimans and Pleurotus ostreatus when wood blocks were impregnated with this chemical prior to challenge by cultures of these fungi. The effectiveness of this compound in limiting growth in a large number of different fungi suggests that competitive inhibitors of nitrogen uptake and metabolism could be used to control fungi which decay wood and similar materials, and may also have wider applications.     

Utilization of recovered wood in cascades versus utilization of primary wood—a comparison with life cycle assessment using system expansion

Purpose

A cascading utilization of resources is encouraged especially by legislative bodies. However, only few consecutive assessments of the environmental impacts of cascading are available. This study provides answers to the following questions for using recovered wood as a secondary resource: (1) Does cascading decrease impacts on the environment compared to the use of primary wood resources? (2) What aspects of the cascading system are decisive for the life cycle assessment (LCA) results?

Methods

We conducted full LCAs for cascading utilization options of waste wood and compared the results to functionally equivalent products from primary wood, thereby focusing on the direct effects cascading has on the environmental impacts of the systems. In order to compare waste wood cascading to the use of primary wood with LCA, a functional equivalence of the systems has to be achieved. We applied a system expansion approach, considering different options for providing the additionally needed energy for the cascading system.

Results and discussion

We found that the cascading systems create fewer environmental impacts than the primary wood systems, if system expansion is based on wood energy. The most noticeable advantages were detected for the impact categories of land transformation and occupation and the demand of primary energy from renewable sources. The results of the sensitivity analyses indicate that the advantage of the cascading system is robust against the majority of considered factors. Efficiency and the method of incineration at the end of life do influence the results.

Conclusions

To maximize the benefits and minimize the associated environmental impacts, cascading proves to be a preferable option of utilizing untreated waste wood.     

Challenges of the utilization of wood polymers: how can they be overcome?

Diminishing fossil fuel resources as well as growing environmental and energy security concerns, in parallel with growing demands on raw materials and energy, have intensified global efforts to utilize wood biopolymers as a renewable resource to produce biofuels and biomaterials. Wood is one of the most abundant biopolymer composites on earth that can be converted into biofuels as well as used as a platform to produce bio-based materials. The major biopolymers in wood are cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin which account for >90% of dry weight. These polymers are generally associated with each other in wood cell walls resulting in an intricate and dynamic cell wall structure. This mini-review provides an overview of major wood biopolymers, their structure, and recent developments in their utilization to develop biofuels. Advances in genetic modifications to overcome the recalcitrance of woody biomass for biofuels are discussed and point to a promising future.     

Non-omnia moriantur—toxicity of mancozeb on dead wood microarthropod fauna

The effect of Dithane M-45 (dithiocarbamate fungicide; active substance: mancozeb) was studied on microarthropod fauna inhabiting dead wood. Although the exposure was almost never 100% lethal for the majority of observed taxa, almost all (Mesostigmata, Oribatida, some Uropodina, Actinedida, Collembola and Diplopoda) showed very high correlation between concentration of the fungicide and mortality (r > 0.86). Only Stigmaeidae showed low correlation (r = 0.293). For the majority of taxa LC₅₀ values were close to the concentrations used during agrochemical activities in woods. Only Trachytes aegrota showed full susceptibility to the fungicide within the range of recommended field concentrations used in forestry (characterised by the low LC₉₅ value). Tolerance of mesostigmatid and oribatid mites was found to differ between juveniles and adults, but not consistently. Related Uropodina species varied in susceptibility to the fungicide.     

Use of wood energy in the United States — An opportunity

The use of wood for energy — including the burning of solid wood and black liquor from pulping — has been growing at a rate significantly greater than that for all other uses such as lumber, pulp, or particleboard. In the United States, the end of most wood is not lumber or pulp and paper but feed for energy. In 1983, 155·5 M Mg of wood were used for energy. This could threaten to increase the price of wood for those other uses, or it can stimulate us to seek more creative ways of using untapped wood resources for fuel.On the basis of estimates of heavy wood energy use relative to other uses for wood, and estimates of continuing high costs for fossil fuels, we suggest here the feasibility of meeting the demand for fuelwood through small-scale cooperatives. Such an approach can improve forestry practices and can avoid unduly increasing the cost of wood for other end uses.     

Prevalence of wood characters in eastern North America: what characters are most promising for interpreting climates from fossil wood?

The frequency of wood-anatomical characters in the eastern North America dicotyledonous tree flora shows spatial variance that can be related to climate (40% of the variation in 18 characters is explained by temperature and precipitation). Percent of taxa with rings varies with mean annual temperature, but the relationship is weak and the difficulties in making determinations as to presence or absence of rings make this character a problematic climatic indicator. Significant climate sensitivity is seen among characters pertaining to: a) vessel size and density (in diffuse-porous woods); 2) vessel arrangement; 3) parenchyma types; and 4) rays. Overall, the anatomical variables can be used to represent 82% of the variance in total precipitation and 91% of the variance in mean annual temperature within the study area. These results demonstrate the possibility of deriving a multivariate representation of the response of wood to climate that will be useful in climate reconstruction and comprise a source of information similar to that obtainable from leaf morphology and permitting estimates of precipitation as well as temperature.     

The fossil record of Cunoniaceae: new evidence from Late Cretaceous wood of Antarctica?

Fossil angiosperm wood from Upper Cretaceous sediments of Livingston Island and James Ross Island in the northern Antarctic Peninsula region is identified as having the combination of anatomical characters most similar to modern Cunoniaceae. The material is characterised by predominantly solitary vessels, opposite to scalariform intervessel pitting, scalariform perforation plates, heterocellular multiseriate and homocellular uniseriate rays, diffuse axial parenchyma. Anatomically, the specimens conform most closely to the fossil organ genus Weinmannioxylon Petriella which has been placed within the Cunoniaceae. The presence of Weinmannioxylon in Late Cretaceous sediments suggests that taxa within or stem taxa to the Cunoniaceae might have been a notable component of the forest vegetation that covered the Antarctic Peninsula during the Late Mesozoic and may therefore represent the earliest record of this family.     

Inside the guts of wood-eating catfishes: can they digest wood?

To better understand the structure and function of the gastrointestinal (GI) tracts of wood-eating catfishes, the gross morphology, length, and microvilli surface area (MVSA) of the intestines of wild-caught Panaque nocturnus, P. cf. nigrolineatus “Marañon”, and Hypostomus pyrineusi were measured, and contrasted against these same metrics of a closely related detritivore, Pterygoplichthys disjunctivus. All four species had anatomically unspecialized intestines with no kinks, valves, or ceca of any kind. The wood-eating catfishes had body size-corrected intestinal lengths that were 35% shorter than the detritivore. The MVSA of all four species decreased distally in the intestine, indicating that nutrient absorption preferentially takes place in the proximal and mid-intestine, consistent with digestive enzyme activity and luminal carbohydrate profiles for these same species. Wild-caught Pt. disjunctivus, and P. nigrolineatus obtained via the aquarium trade, poorly digested wood cellulose (<33% digestibility) in laboratory feeding trials, lost weight when consuming wood, and passed stained wood through their digestive tracts in less than 4 h. Furthermore, no selective retention of small particles was observed in either species in any region of the gut. Collectively, these results corroborate digestive enzyme activity profiles and gastrointestinal fermentation levels in the fishes’ GI tracts, suggesting that the wood-eating catfishes are not true xylivores such as beavers and termites, but rather, are detritivores like so many other fishes from the family Loricariidae.     

Biocatalytic conversion of turpentine – a wood processing waste – into oxygenated monoterpenes

Abstract

Three kinds of turpentine (a waste by-product of industrial wood processing) of various monoterpene compositions were transformed by Picea abies cells and the product yields monitored in relation to the initial turpentine concentration. The major products obtained were trans-verbenol, trans-pinocarveol, myrtenol, α-terpineol, and p-cymen-8-ol depending on the substrate composition. The absolute quantitative values of the major products were evaluated for a substrate concentration of 0.86 g L^?1. The concentration of trans-verbenol and trans-pinocarveol after twelve days of biotransformation was 768 and 388 mg L^?1, respectively. The substrate was uptaken by Picea abies cells within the first three days and the majority of products released in five days. Although not all the starting material was consumed, the Picea abies suspension culture was able to convert concentrations of turpentine as high as 4.3 g L^?1 into valuable products. By precise selection of the substrate concentration and time course, favourable conversion to products could be achieved.     

Does the method of set-aside establishment affect its use by wood mice?

The set-aside scheme, whereby land is removed from arable production, is primarily aimed at manipulating agricultural surplus within the European Community, but has potentially great consequences for biodiversity and wildlife management (Feber et al ., 1995; Macdonald et al ., 1998; Sotherton 1998). Managed inappropriately, set-aside could prove environmentally damaging by reducing biodiversity and directly harming certain species, such as ground-nesting birds (Thompson, 1993). Conversely, appropriately managed set-aside could foster desirable ecological communities, with enhanced populations and biodiversity.     

Comparing the incomparable? A review of methodical aspects in the sustainability assessment of wood in vehicles

The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment - The choice of materials used for a vehicle can contribute to reduce negative environmental and social impacts. Bio-based materials are...     

Where will the wood come from? Plantation forests and the role of biotechnology

Wood is almost as important to humanity as food, and the natural forests from which most of it is harvested from are of enormous environmental value. However, these slow-growing forests are unable to meet current demand, resulting in the loss and degradation of forest. Plantation forests have the potential to supply the bulk of humanity's wood needs on a long-term basis, and so reduce to acceptable limits the harvest pressures on natural forests. However, if they are to be successful, plantation forests must have a far higher yield of timber than their natural counterparts, on much shorter rotation times. To achieve this in reasonable time, biotechnology must be applied to the tree-improvement process, for which large increases in public and private capital investment are needed. However, additional obstacles exist in the form of opposition to plantations, some forest ecocertification schemes, and concerns about aspects of forest biotechnology, especially genetic engineering. It is the intention of this article to explain, in detail, why plantation forests are needed to sustainably meet the world's demand for wood, why they are not being developed fast enough, and why the application of biotechnology to tree improvement is essential to speeding up this process.     

Adaptive wing asymmetry in males of the speckled wood butterfly (Pararge aegeria)?

We analysed asymmetry in the wings of the speckled wood butterfly (Pararge aegeria)by measuring area, length and width of fore- and hindwings. The type of asymmetry is fluctuating except for fore- and hindwing area, and forewing width in males, where asymmetry is directional. The amount of asymmetry (variance of the left wing minus the right wing) is less in males than in females. Within males asymmetry was directional and less in pale, predominantly territorial males than in melanic, predominantly non-territorial males. Asymmetry was negatively related to growth rate within females, but not within males. Females grew faster than males, but had higher asymmetry, whereas the more asymmetrical melanic males grew more slowly than pale males. The differences in the type and amount of asymmetry between the sexes and colour classes suggest a relationship with sex-specific flight patterns such as the territorial spiralling flight of males. We hypothesize that slightly asymmetrical males turn faster, and therefore are superior in territorial disputes over more symmetrical or extremely asymmetrical males. This implies that sexual selection via male–male competition influences the type and amount of asymmetry. The existence of more extremely asymmetrical individuals in females, and to a lesser extent in non-territorial males, may indicate that there are costs in reducing asymmetry.     

Reaction wood – a key cause of variation in cell wall recalcitrance in willow

Background

The recalcitrance of lignocellulosic cell wall biomass to deconstruction varies greatly in angiosperms, yet the source of this variation remains unclear. Here, in eight genotypes of short rotation coppice willow (Salix sp.) variability of the reaction wood (RW) response and the impact of this variation on cell wall recalcitrance to enzymatic saccharification was considered.

Results

A pot trial was designed to test if the ‘RW response’ varies between willow genotypes and contributes to the differences observed in cell wall recalcitrance to enzymatic saccharification in field-grown trees. Biomass composition was measured via wet chemistry and used with glucose release yields from enzymatic saccharification to determine cell wall recalcitrance. The levels of glucose release found for pot-grown control trees showed no significant correlation with glucose release from mature field-grown trees. However, when a RW phenotype was induced in pot-grown trees, glucose release was strongly correlated with that for mature field-grown trees. Field studies revealed a 5-fold increase in glucose release from a genotype grown at a site exposed to high wind speeds (a potentially high RW inducing environment) when compared with the same genotype grown at a more sheltered site.

Conclusions

Our findings provide evidence for a new concept concerning variation in the recalcitrance to enzymatic hydrolysis of the stem biomass of different, field-grown willow genotypes (and potentially other angiosperms). Specifically, that genotypic differences in the ability to produce a response to RW inducing conditions (a ‘RW response’) indicate that this RW response is a primary determinant of the variation observed in cell wall glucan accessibility. The identification of the importance of this RW response trait in willows, is likely to be valuable in selective breeding strategies in willow (and other angiosperm) biofuel crops and, with further work to dissect the nature of RW variation, could provide novel targets for genetic modification for improved biofuel feedstocks.

     

Historic fuel wood use in the Galápagos Islands: identification of charred remains

Charcoal fragments from five historic campsite locations in the Galápagos Islands were identified and radiocarbon dated to investigate postulated early human presence in the archipelago, historic fuel wood collection patterns and the resultant impact on native vegetation. A variety of taxa and fuel types were revealed to be present in the charcoal assemblages, indicating geographically driven rather than species-specific methods of collection. Historic anthropogenic impact was therefore spread amongst woody taxa in the lowland plant communities, with severity dependent on proximity to campsite location. All charred remains were found to date from within the historic period, supporting the preponderance of archaeological evidence indicating that human presence did not begin in Galápagos until after European discovery.     

The use of wood during prehispanic times in the Upper Paraná Delta revealed though analysis of ancient charcoal

Vegetation History and Archaeobotany - Woody plant resources are important to human societies today and were also in the past. Here we assess the woody plant resources available to peoples in...     

Systematic wood anatomy of the genus Tapirira Aublet (Anacardiaceae)— a numerical approach

A wood anatomical study of the Mexican species ofTapirira was undertaken to uncover evidence to help clarify the systematics of the genus. Three to five individuals of each of 10 populations from throughout the range of the genus in Mexico were studied. For comparative purposes, three Central and South American species were also examined. Cluster analysis showed that the genus in Mexico can be separated into two phenetic units, represented byT. mexicana, a species widely distributed in Mexico, andT. chimalapana, a species endemic to the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Canonical discriminant and factor analyses indicate that the quantitative wood characters most useful in distinguishing these species are wall thickness of fibers and vessels, diameter of fiber lumen, and diameter and frequency of radial canals. These species also differ in presence/absence of tannins in the fibers and color and specific gravity of the wood. The South American species,Tapirira bethanniana, T. guianensis, andT. obtusa, have wood anatomy similar to that ofT. chimalapana. The differences in the wood anatomical characters betweenT. mexicana and the other taxa suggest that the infrageneric classification ofTapirira should be reevaluated. The results of this study support the utility of sampling of populations in comparative wood anatomy.     

Ergosterol — A measure of fungal growth in wood for staining and pitch control fungi

Summary A modified ergosterol analysis method, including a simultaneous saponification and refluxing extraction procedure along with HPLC quantification, was used to measure fungal colonization rate in wood. In liquid media the ergosterol content of the mycelia was measured and correlated to the fungal dry weight. In work on investigating staining fungal proteinase production on wood, ergosterol values were used to monitor fungal growth and to determine when maximum proteinase activity occurred. Similarly, we correlated ergosterol values with the decrease of wood lipids during pitch control fungal colonization.     

Nucleotide sequence analysis of two lignin genes in Acacia auriculiformis × Acacia mangium hybrid for enhancement of wood pulp quality

There is large potential in the establishment of Acacia auriculiformis × Acacia mangium hybrid plantations through selection of high quality parents especially with characteristics favourable for some end products like pulp and fibre. Trees altered in their lignin profile with reduced amounts of lignin or increased extractable syringyl are desirable in the pulp and paper industry. Cinnamoyl-CoA reductase (CCR) and caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT) are two enzymes likely to regulate lignin content and composition in the syringyl (S)- and guaiacyl (G)-related monolignols at specific branches of the lignin biosynthetic pathway. A goal of this study was to discover the genetic variation in CCR and COMT genes in Acacia species using single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). In this study, two lignin genes, CCR (3,317 bp) and COMT (2,764 bp), were isolated from the Acacia hybrid, sequenced and analysed in silico. Southern blot analysis suggested that there are one to two copies of genes encoding CCR and COMT in the Acacia hybrid. Upon genotyping 480 individuals from natural populations of A. auriculiformis and A. mangium, six CCR SNPs were found in A. auriculiformis and five CCR SNPs in A. mangium. Three COMT SNPs were found in A. auriculiformis and one COMT SNP in A. mangium. A pair of CCR SNPs showed high linkage disequlibrium (LD) with r ² value of 0.870 in an A. mangium population from Papua New Guinea. The SNPs will be further exploited through the candidate gene-based LD mapping to identify QTLs for the Acacia marker-assisted breeding. This is the first documentation of the isolation, cloning and re-sequencing of CCR and COMT genes in the Acacia hybrid and the natural populations of A. auriculiformis and A. mangium.