Differential control of the synthesis of two hemoglobin beta chains in normal mice

A fetal-to-adult switch in the proportion of the mouse minor hemoglobin is described. Although mice have no fetal hemoglobin per se, the timing of this switch in the mouse suggests that the mechanism of its control may directly parallel that of the human switch from fetal to adult hemoglobin expression. The mouse minor hemoglobin is expressed only in strains with the "diffuse" allele for the beta chain complex locus. Fetal liver cells of these mice synthesize a much greater proportion of the betaminor globin chain that do adult hematopoietic cells. Consequently, circulating fetal erythrocytes carry a high level of the minor hemoglobin containing it. By the time of birth, a lowered proportion of betaminor is synthesized in the liver. This low proportion continues to be expressed during early erythroid maturation in the adult. The fetal-to-adult switch is the first indication that in normal mice, the two beta chain loci can be expressed noncoordinately. The similarity between the patterns of the decline of the minor hemoglobin in mice and of the disappearance of fetal hemoglobin in humans suggests that the minor hemoglobin in the "diffuse" mouse may function to some degree as a fetal hemoglobin in the period between the disappearance of the embryonic hemoglobins and the time of birth.     

Histone deacetylase 9 activates gamma-globin gene expression in primary erythroid cells

Strategies to induce fetal hemoglobin (HbF) synthesis for the treatment of β-hemoglobinopathies probably involve protein modifications by histone deacetylases (HDACs) that mediate γ-globin gene regulation. However, the role of individual HDACs in globin gene expression is not very well understood; thus, the focus of our study was to identify HDACs involved in γ-globin activation. K562 erythroleukemia cells treated with the HbF inducers hemin, trichostatin A, and sodium butyrate had significantly reduced mRNA levels of HDAC9 and its splice variant histone deacetylase-related protein. Subsequently, HDAC9 gene knockdown produced dose-dependent γ-globin gene silencing over an 80-320 nm range. Enforced expression with the pTarget-HDAC9 vector produced a dose-dependent 2.5-fold increase in γ-globin mRNA (p < 0.05). Furthermore, ChIP assays showed HDAC9 binding in vivo in the upstream Gγ-globin gene promoter region. To determine the physiological relevance of these findings, human primary erythroid progenitors were treated with HDAC9 siRNA; we observed 40 and 60% γ-globin gene silencing in day 11 (early) and day 28 (late) progenitors. Moreover, enforced HDAC9 expression increased γ-globin mRNA levels by 2.5-fold with a simultaneous 7-fold increase in HbF. Collectively, these data support a positive role for HDAC9 in γ-globin gene regulation.     

Design,synthesis, and optimization of a series of 2-azaspiro[3.3]heptane derivatives as orally bioavailable fetal hemoglobin inducers

Pharmacological reactivation of the γ-globin gene for the production of fetal hemoglobin (HbF) is a promising approach for the management of β-thalassemia and sickle cell disease (SCD). We conducted a phenotypic screen in human erythroid progenitor cells to identify molecules that could induce HbF, which resulted in identification of the hit compound 1. Exploration of structure–activity relationships and optimization of ADME properties led to 2-azaspiro[3.3]heptane derivative 18, which is more rigid and has a unique structure. In vivo using cynomolgus monkeys, compound 18 induced a significant dose-dependent increase in globin switching, with developable properties. Moreover, compound 18 showed no genotoxic effects and was much safer than hydroxyurea. These findings could facilitate the development of effective new therapies for the treatment of β-hemoglobinopathies, including SCD.     

Hb switching in chickens

We have taken advantage of the preferential digestion of active genes by DNAase I to investigate the chromosomal structure of embryonic and adult β-globin genes during erythropoiesis in chick embryos, and in particular to examine the question of hemoglobin switching during development. DNA in isolated red cell nuclei was mildly digested with DNAase I to about 10–15 kb, purified and restricted with a variety of restriction enzymes. The DNA was then separated on agarose gels, transferred to nitrocellulose filters and hybridized with an adult-specific β-globin cDNA clone or a genomic clone containing the genes coding for both an embryonic and an adult β-globin chain. Preferential sensitivity of the respective globin genes was monitored by the disappearance of specific restriction bands after DNAase I digestion of nuclei. In embryonic red cells, both adult and embryonic β-globin genes are very sensitive to DNAase I; however, in adult erythroid lines, the embryonic β-globin gene becomes relatively more resistant but the adult gene remains highly sensitive. Controls showed that all globin genes were resistant to DNAase I in brain nuclei and nuclei from lymphoid cells. Thus the switch from embryonic to adult globin expression is associated with an apparent change in the chromosome structure of the embryonic globin gene as reflected in the gene becoming less accessible to DNAase I in adult red cell nuclei. Our results also show that the chromosomal structure of both adult and embryonic genes is altered in embryonic red cell nuclei; thus the nonexpressed globin gene (that is, the adult gene in embryonic red cells) has already been “recognized” to some degree and marked by the erythroid compartment. The sensitivity of the adult globin gene in embryonic cells may represent a “pre-activation” state of the chromosome.     

Effect of AGM and fetal liver-derived stromal cell lines on globin expression in adult baboon (P. anubis) bone marrow-derived erythroid progenitors

This study was performed to investigate the hypothesis that the erythroid micro-environment plays a role in regulation of globin gene expression during adult erythroid differentiation. Adult baboon bone marrow and human cord blood CD34+ progenitors were grown in methylcellulose, liquid media, and in co-culture with stromal cell lines derived from different developmental stages in identical media supporting erythroid differentiation to examine the effect of the micro-environment on globin gene expression. Adult progenitors express high levels of γ-globin in liquid and methylcellulose media but low, physiological levels in stromal cell co-cultures. In contrast, γ-globin expression remained high in cord blood progenitors in stromal cell line co-cultures. Differences in γ-globin gene expression between adult progenitors in stromal cell line co-cultures and liquid media required cell-cell contact and were associated with differences in rate of differentiation and γ-globin promoter DNA methylation. We conclude that γ-globin expression in adult-derived erythroid cells can be influenced by the micro-environment, suggesting new potential targets for HbF induction.     

人胎儿γ-珠蛋白基因的再活化及在β血红蛋白病治疗中的

在个体发育过程中,人β类珠蛋白基因的表达存在从胎儿（γ）到成人（β）珠蛋白基因的表达转换（或称开关）.β-地中海贫血和镰刀型贫血症是两种最为常见的严重危害人类健康的单基因遗传病,通过诱导胎儿期血红蛋白（HbF,α2γ2）在成人期表达对该病的治疗是一种有效的策略.一些活化γ珠蛋白基因表达的转录因子和辅助因子已经被鉴定,一些可以增加胎儿血红蛋白在成人红细胞中表达的药物也已被鉴别和实验,它们的作用机制被部分揭示,这些研究为发展通过活化γ-珠蛋白基因治疗镰刀形细胞贫血和重型β-地中海贫血的方法提供了重要线索和实验依据.     

与胎儿珠蛋白基因持续表达有关的(A_γδβ)°—地贫纯合子及杂合子的分子鉴别

我们分子鉴别了一个缺失型中国(A_γδβ)°-地贫家系。先证者为这一缺失的纯合子,具有中度贫血症状。家系的另五个成员均为这一缺失的杂合子,其胎儿血红蛋白(HbF)为16—21％,接近或达到HPFH杂合子的HbF水平,并且几乎不表现贫血症状。限制性内切酶图谱分析证明了β-珠蛋白基因簇内的DNA顺序缺失,缺失的5′端点位于Aγ基因IVSⅡ内,3′端点在β-珠蛋白基因下游区远端,距HPFH-2的3′缺失端点上游区约11kb。缺失的总长度约为80kb。本文讨论了这一缺失导致胎儿血红蛋白在成人中持续活跃表达的可能机制。     

A physiological delay in human fetal hemoglobin switching is associated with specific globin DNA hypomethylation

The human fetal-to-adult globin switch normally occurs on a fixed schedule, beginning at 32-34 weeks gestation, and recent studies have suggested an association between this developmental inactivation of the fetal (gamma) globin genes and the appearance of methylation within and around these genes. We have studied a population of infants in whom this switch does not occur before birth (infants of diabetic mothers, IDM) and examined the patterns of methylation surrounding their active gamma-globin genes, in comparison to the gamma-globin genes of age-matched controls who have switched their pattern of globin gene expression on schedule. All genomic DNA samples from infants with delays in the globin switch demonstrated extensive hypomethylation in the region of the gamma-globin genes, comparable to that found in the genomes of fetuses of less than 21 weeks gestation. DNA from the erythroid cells of infants of 32-40 weeks gestation had no detectable hypomethylation in the gamma-globin region. These findings support the concept that hypomethylation is an accurate developmental marker of globin gene switching, and suggest that globin gene expression in IDM may be arrested at an early preswitch stage.     

Substitution of the Human β-Spectrin Promoter for the Human Aγ-Globin Promoter Prevents Silencing of a Linked Human β-Globin Gene in Transgenic Mice

During development, changes occur in both the sites of erythropoiesis and the globin genes expressed at each developmental stage. Previous work has shown that high-level expression of human β-like globin genes in transgenic mice requires the presence of the locus control region (LCR). Models of hemoglobin switching propose that the LCR and/or stage-specific elements interact with globin gene sequences to activate specific genes in erythroid cells. To test these models, we generated transgenic mice which contain the human ^Aγ-globin gene linked to a 576-bp fragment containing the human β-spectrin promoter. In these mice, the β-spectrin ^Aγ-globin (βsp/^Aγ) transgene was expressed at high levels in erythroid cells throughout development. Transgenic mice containing a 40-kb cosmid construct with the micro-LCR, βsp/^Aγ-, ψβ-, δ-, and β-globin genes showed no developmental switching and expressed both human γ- and β-globin mRNAs in erythroid cells throughout development. Mice containing control cosmids with the ^Aγ-globin gene promoter showed developmental switching and expressed ^Aγ-globin mRNA in yolk sac and fetal liver erythroid cells and β-globin mRNA in fetal liver and adult erythroid cells. Our results suggest that replacement of the γ-globin promoter with the β-spectrin promoter allows the expression of the β-globin gene. We conclude that the γ-globin promoter is necessary and sufficient to suppress the expression of the β-globin gene in yolk sac erythroid cells.