Structure and mechanism of homoserine kinase: prototype for the GHMP kinase superfamily

BACKGROUND: Homoserine kinase (HSK) catalyzes an important step in the threonine biosynthesis pathway. It belongs to a large yet unique class of small metabolite kinases, the GHMP kinase superfamily. Members in the GHMP superfamily participate in several essential metabolic pathways, such as amino acid biosynthesis, galactose metabolism, and the mevalonate pathway. RESULTS: The crystal structure of HSK and its complex with ADP reveal a novel nucleotide binding fold. The N-terminal domain contains an unusual left-handed betaalphabeta unit, while the C-terminal domain has a central alpha-beta plait fold with an insertion of four helices. The phosphate binding loop in HSK is distinct from the classical P loops found in many ATP/GTP binding proteins. The bound ADP molecule adopts a rare syn conformation and is in the opposite orientation from those bound to the P loop-containing proteins. Inspection of the substrate binding cavity indicates several amino acid residues that are likely to be involved in substrate binding and catalysis. CONCLUSIONS: The crystal structure of HSK is the first representative in the GHMP superfamily to have determined structure. It provides insight into the structure and nucleotide binding mechanism of not only the HSK family but also a variety of enzymes in the GHMP superfamily. Such enzymes include galactokinases, mevalonate kinases, phosphomevalonate kinases, mevalonate pyrophosphate decarboxylases, and several proteins of yet unknown functions.     

Backbone 1H, 13C, 15N NMR assignments of the unliganded and substrate ternary complex forms of mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase from Streptococcus pneumoniae

Mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase (MDD) catalyzes the ATP-dependent decarboxylation of diphosphomevalonate (DPM) to produce isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP), the molecular “building block” for more than 25,000 distinct isoprenoids, including cholesterol, steroid hormones and terpenoids. Here, we present the first backbone assignment of Streptococcus pneumoniae MDD in the unliganded state and in a ternary complex with DPM and AMPPCP––a nucleotide analogue unable to transfer the γ-phosphoryl group. The secondary chemical shifts for the unliganded form are in good agreement with the crystal structure of Streptococcus pyogenes (~70% sequence identity). The addition of substrate and nucleotide to the enzyme results in chemical shift changes of cross peaks that correspond to residues in the binding pocket.     

Identification of active site residues in mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase: implications for a family of phosphotransferases

A combination of sequence homology analyses of mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase (MDD) proteins and structural information for MDD leads to the hypothesis that Asp 302 and Lys 18 are active site residues in MDD. These residues were mutated to replace acidic/basic side chains and the mutant proteins were isolated and characterized. Binding and competitive displacement studies using trinitrophenyl-ATP, a fluorescent analog of substrate ATP, indicate that these mutant enzymes (D302A, D302N, K18M) retain the ability to stoichiometrically bind nucleotide triphosphates at the active site. These observations suggest the structural integrity of the mutant MDD proteins. The functional importance of mutated residues was evaluated by kinetic analysis. The 10(3) and 10(5)-fold decreases in k(cat) observed for the Asp 302 mutants (D302N and D302A, respectively) support assignment of a crucial catalytic role to Asp 302. A 30-fold decrease in activity and a 16-fold inflation of the K(m) for ATP is documented for the K18M mutant, indicating that Lys 18 influences the active site but is not crucial for reaction chemistry. Demonstration of the influence of conserved aspartate 302 appears to represent the first documentation of the functional importance of a residue in the MDD catalytic site and affords insight into phosphotransferase reactions catalyzed by a variety of enzymes in the galactokinase, homoserine kinase, mevalonate kinase, phosphom-evalonate kinase (GHMP kinase) family.     

Crystal structures of Trypanosoma brucei and Staphylococcus aureus mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase inform on the determinants of specificity and reactivity

Mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase (MDD) catalyzes the ATP-dependent decarboxylation of mevalonate 5-diphosphate (MDP) to form isopentenyl pyrophosphate, a ubiquitous precursor for isoprenoid biosynthesis. MDD is a poorly understood component of this important metabolic pathway. Complementation of a temperature-sensitive yeast mutant by the putative mdd genes of Trypanosoma brucei and Staphylococcus aureus provides proof-of-function. Crystal structures of MDD from T. brucei (TbMDD, at 1.8 A resolution) and S. aureus (SaMDD, in two distinct crystal forms, each diffracting to 2.3 A resolution) have been determined. Gel-filtration chromatography and analytical ultracentrifugation experiments indicate that TbMDD is predominantly monomeric in solution while SaMDD is dimeric. The new crystal structures and comparison with that of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae enzyme (ScMDD) reveal the structural basis for this variance in quaternary structure. The presence of an ordered sulfate in the structure of TbMDD reveals for the first time details of a ligand binding in the MDD active site and, in conjunction with well-ordered water molecules, comparisons with the related enzyme mevalonate kinase, structural and biochemical data derived on ScMDD and SaMDD, allows us to model a ternary complex with MDP and ATP. This model facilitates discussion of the molecular determinants of substrate recognition and contributions made by specific residues to the enzyme mechanism.     

Investigation of the functional contributions of invariant serine residues in yeast mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase

Alignment of more than 20 deduced sequences for mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase (MDD) indicates that serines 34, 36, 120,121, 153, and 155 are invariant residues that map within a proposed interdomain active site cleft. To test possible active site roles for these invariant serines, each has been mutated to alanine. S34A exhibits limited solubility and impaired binding of the fluorescent ATP analogue, trinitrophenyl-ATP (TNP-ATP), suggesting that Ser-34 substitution destabilizes proper enzyme folding. All other serine mutants retain structural integrity, as indicated by their ability to bind TNP-ATP at levels comparable to wild-type enzyme. S153A exhibits a 18-fold inflation in K(d) for Mg-ATP, as indicated by competitive displacement of TNP-ATP; the enzyme also is characterized by a 35-fold inflation in K(m) for Mg-ATP. S155A exhibits a 26-fold inflation in K(m) for Mg-ATP, but competitive displacement of TNP-ATP indicates only a 2-fold inflation in K(d) for this substrate. S155A exhibits both a 16-fold inflation in K(m) for mevalonate diphosphate and a 14-fold inflation in K(i(slope)) for the substrate analogue, diphosphoglycolylproline. These observations suggest roles for Ser-153 and Ser-155 in substrate binding. Catalytic consequences of mutating invariant serines 36, 120, 153, and 155 are modest (<8-fold diminution in k(cat)). In contrast, S121A, which exhibits only modest changes in K(d) for Mg-ATP and K(m) for mevalonate diphosphate, is characterized by a >42,000-fold diminution in k(cat), indicating the critical involvement of Ser-121 in reaction catalysis. The selective involvement of the latter of two tandem serine residues (Ser-120, Ser-121) in a conserved sequence motif suggests mechanistic similarities within the GHMP kinase superfamily of proteins.     

Crystal structure of 4-(cytidine 5'-diphospho)-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol kinase,an enzyme in the non-mevalonate pathway of isoprenoid synthesis

The crystal structure of the enzyme 4-(cytidine 5'-diphospho)-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol (CDP-ME) kinase from the thermophilic bacterium Thermus thermophilus HB8 has been determined at 1.7-A resolution. This enzyme catalyzes phosphorylation of the 2-hydroxyl group of CDP-ME, the fourth step of the non-mevalonate pathway, which is essential for isoprenoid biosynthesis in several pathogenic microorganisms. Since this pathway is absent in humans, it is an important target for the development of novel antimicrobial compounds. The structure of the enzyme is similar to the structures of mevalonate kinase and homoserine kinase, members of the GHMP superfamily. Lys8 and Asp125 are active site residues in mevalonate kinase that also appear to play a catalytic role in CDP-ME kinase. Both the mevalonate and the non-mevalonate pathways therefore involve closely related kinases with similar mechanisms. Assaying the enzyme showed that CDP-ME kinase will phosphorylate CDP-ME but not 4-(uridine 5'-diphospho)-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol, indicating the substrate pyrimidine moiety is involved in important interactions with the enzyme.     

Substrate-induced DNA Polymerase β Activation

DNA polymerases and substrates undergo conformational changes upon forming protein-ligand complexes. These conformational adjustments can hasten or deter DNA synthesis and influence substrate discrimination. From structural comparison of binary DNA and ternary DNA-dNTP complexes of DNA polymerase β, several side chains have been implicated in facilitating formation of an active ternary complex poised for chemistry. Site-directed mutagenesis of these highly conserved residues (Asp-192, Arg-258, Phe-272, Glu-295, and Tyr-296) and kinetic characterization provides insight into the role these residues play during correct and incorrect insertion as well as their role in conformational activation. The catalytic efficiencies for correct nucleotide insertion for alanine mutants were wild type ∼ R258A > F272A ∼ Y296A > E295A > D192A. Because the efficiencies for incorrect insertion were affected to about the same extent for each mutant, the effects on fidelity were modest (<5-fold). The R258A mutant exhibited an increase in the single-turnover rate of correct nucleotide insertion. This suggests that the wild-type Arg-258 side chain generates a population of non-productive ternary complexes. Structures of binary and ternary substrate complexes of the R258A mutant and a mutant associated with gastric carcinomas, E295K, provide molecular insight into intermediate structural conformations not appreciated previously. Although the R258A mutant crystal structures were similar to wild-type enzyme, the open ternary complex structure of E295K indicates that Arg-258 stabilizes a non-productive conformation of the primer terminus that would decrease catalysis. Significantly, the open E295K ternary complex binds two metal ions indicating that metal binding cannot overcome the modified interactions that have interrupted the closure of the N-subdomain.     

Significance of highly conserved aromatic residues in Micrococcus luteus B-P 26 undecaprenyl diphosphate synthase

Undecaprenyl diphosphate synthase catalyzes the sequential condensation of eight molecules of isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) in the cis-configuration into farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) to produce undecaprenyl diphosphate (UPP), which is indispensable for the biosynthesis of the bacterial cell wall. This cis-type prenyltransferase exhibits a quite different mode of binding of homoallylic substrate IPP from that of trans-type prenyltransferase [Kharel Y. et al. (2001) J. Biol. Chem. 276, 28459-28464]. In order to know the IPP binding mode in more detail, we selected six highly conserved residues in Regions III, IV, and V among nine conserved aromatic residues in Micrococcus luteus B-P 26 UPP synthase for substitution by site-directed mutagenesis. The mutant enzymes were expressed and purified to homogeneity, and then their effects on substrate binding and the catalytic function were examined. All of the mutant enzymes showed moderately similar far-UV CD spectra to that of the wild-type, indicating that none of the replacement of conserved aromatic residues affected the secondary structure of the enzyme. Kinetic analysis showed that the replacement of Tyr-71 with Ser in Region III, Tyr-148 with Phe in Region IV, and Trp-210 with Ala in Region V brought about 10-1,600-fold decreases in the kcat/Km values compared to that of the wild-type but the Km values for both substrates IPP and FPP resulted in only moderate changes. Substitution of Phe-207 with Ser in Region V resulted in a 13-fold increase in the Km value for IPP and a 1,000-2,000-fold lower kcat/Km value than those of the wild-type, although the Km values for FPP showed about no significant changes. In addition, the W224A mutant as to Region V showed 6-fold and 14-fold increased Km values for IPP and FPP, respectively, and 100-250-fold decreased kcat/Km values as compared to those of the wild-type. These results suggested that these conserved aromatic residues play important roles in the binding with both substrates, IPP and FPP, as well as the catalytic function of undecaprenyl diphosphate synthase.     

Escherichia coli Open Reading Frame 696 Is idi, a Nonessential Gene Encoding Isopentenyl Diphosphate Isomerase

Isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase catalyzes the interconversion of isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP). In eukaryotes, archaebacteria, and some bacteria, IPP is synthesized from acetyl coenzyme A by the mevalonate pathway. The subsequent isomerization of IPP to DMAPP activates the five-carbon isoprene unit for subsequent prenyl transfer reactions. In Escherichia coli, the isoprene unit is synthesized from pyruvate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by the recently discovered nonmevalonate pathway. An open reading frame (ORF696) encoding a putative IPP isomerase was identified in the E. coli chromosome at 65.3 min. ORF696 was cloned into an expression vector; the 20.5 kDa recombinant protein was purified in three steps, and its identity as an IPP isomerase was established biochemically. The gene for IPP isomerase, idi, is not clustered with other known genes for enzymes in the isoprenoid pathway. E. coli FH12 was constructed by disruption of the chromosomal idi gene with the aminoglycoside 3'-phosphotransferase gene and complemented by the wild-type idi gene on plasmid pFMH33 with a temperature-sensitive origin of replication. FH12/pFMH33 was able to grow at the restrictive temperature of 44 degrees C and FH12 lacking the plasmid grew on minimal medium, thereby establishing that idi is a nonessential gene. Although the V(max) of the bacterial protein was 20-fold lower than that of its yeast counterpart, the catalytic efficiencies of the two enzymes were similar through a counterbalance in K(m)s. The E. coli protein requires Mg(2+) or Mn(2+) for activity. The enzyme contains conserved cysteine and glutamate active-site residues found in other IPP isomerases.     

Crystal structures of human IPP isomerase: new insights into the catalytic mechanism

Type I isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP): dimethylally diphosphate (DMAPP) isomerase is an essential enzyme in human isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway. It catalyzes isomerization of the carbon-carbon double bonds in IPP and DMAPP, which are the basic building blocks for the subsequent biosynthesis. We have determined two crystal structures of human IPP isomerase I (hIPPI) under different crystallization conditions. High similarity between structures of human and Escherichia coli IPP isomerases proves the conserved catalytic mechanism. Unexpectedly, one of the hIPPI structures contains a natural substrate analog ethanol amine pyrophosphate (EAPP). Based on this structure, a water molecule is proposed to be the direct proton donor for IPP and different conformations of IPP and DMAPP bound in the enzyme are also proposed. In addition, structures of human IPPI show a flexible N-terminal alpha-helix covering the active pocket and blocking the entrance, which is absent in E. coli IPPI. Besides, the active site conformation is not the same in the two hIPPI structures. Such difference leads to a hypothesis that substrate binding induces conformational change in the active site. The inhibition mechanism of high Mn(2+) concentrations is also discussed.     

Crystal structures of Staphylococcus epidermidis mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase bound to inhibitory analogs reveal new insight into substrate binding and catalysis

The polyisoprenoid compound undecaprenyl phosphate is required for biosynthesis of cell wall peptidoglycans in Gram-positive bacteria, including pathogenic Enterococcus, Streptococcus, and Staphylococcus spp. In these organisms, the mevalonate pathway is used to produce the precursor isoprenoid, isopentenyl 5-diphosphate. Mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase (MDD) catalyzes formation of isopentenyl 5-diphosphate in an ATP-dependent irreversible reaction and is therefore an attractive target for inhibitor development that could lead to new antimicrobial agents. To facilitate exploration of this possibility, we report the crystal structure of Staphylococcus epidermidis MDD (1.85 Å resolution) and, to the best of our knowledge, the first structures of liganded MDD. These structures include MDD bound to the mevalonate 5-diphosphate analogs diphosphoglycolyl proline (2.05 Å resolution) and 6-fluoromevalonate diphosphate (FMVAPP; 2.2 Å resolution). Comparison of these structures provides a physical basis for the significant differences in K_i values observed for these inhibitors. Inspection of enzyme/inhibitor structures identified the side chain of invariant Ser¹⁹² as making potential contributions to catalysis. Significantly, Ser → Ala substitution of this side chain decreases k_cat by ∼10³-fold, even though binding interactions between FMVAPP and this mutant are similar to those observed with wild type MDD, as judged by the 2.1 Å cocrystal structure of S192A with FMVAPP. Comparison of microbial MDD structures with those of mammalian counterparts reveals potential targets at the active site periphery that may be exploited to selectively target the microbial enzymes. These studies provide a structural basis for previous observations regarding the MDD mechanism and inform future work toward rational inhibitor design.     

Structural analysis of mevalonate‐3‐kinase provides insight into the mechanisms of isoprenoid pathway decarboxylases

In animals, cholesterol is made from 5‐carbon building blocks produced by the mevalonate pathway. Drugs that inhibit the mevalonate pathway such as atorvastatin (lipitor) have led to successful treatments for high cholesterol in humans. Another potential target for the inhibition of cholesterol synthesis is mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase (MDD), which catalyzes the phosphorylation of (R)‐mevalonate diphosphate, followed by decarboxylation to yield isopentenyl pyrophosphate. We recently discovered an MDD homolog, mevalonate‐3‐kinase (M3K) from Thermoplasma acidophilum, which catalyzes the identical phosphorylation of (R)‐mevalonate, but without concomitant decarboxylation. Thus, M3K catalyzes half the reaction of the decarboxylase, allowing us to separate features of the active site that are required for decarboxylation from features required for phosphorylation. Here we determine the crystal structure of M3K in the apo form, and with bound substrates, and compare it to MDD structures. Structural and mutagenic analysis reveals modifications that allow M3K to bind mevalonate rather than mevalonate diphosphate. Comparison to homologous MDD structures show that both enzymes employ analogous Arg or Lys residues to catalyze phosphate transfer. However, an invariant active site Asp/Lys pair of MDD previously thought to play a role in phosphorylation is missing in M3K with no functional replacement. Thus, we suggest that the invariant Asp/Lys pair in MDD may be critical for decarboxylation rather than phosphorylation.     

Perspectives in anti-infective drug design. The late steps in the biosynthesis of the universal terpenoid precursors, isopentenyl diphosphate and dimethylallyl diphosphate

A mevalonate-independent pathway for the biosynthesis of isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) that has been elucidated during the last decade is essential in plants, many eubacteria and apicomplexan parasites, but is absent in Archaea and animals. The enzymes of the pathway are potential targets for the development of novel antibiotic, antimalarial and herbicidal agents. This review is focused on the late steps of this pathway. The intermediate 2C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate is converted into IPP and DMAPP via 1-hydroxy-2-methyl-2-(E)-butenyl 4-diphosphate by the consecutive action of the iron-sulfur proteins IspG and IspH. IPP and DMAPP can be interconverted by IPP isomerase which is essential in microorganisms using the mevalonate pathway, whereas its presence is optional in microorganisms using the non-mevalonate pathway. A hitherto unknown family of IPP isomerases using FMN as coenzyme has been discovered recently in Archaea and certain eubacteria.     

Staphylococcus aureus mevalonate kinase: isolation and characterization of an enzyme of the isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway

It has been proposed that isoprenoid biosynthesis in several gram-positive cocci depends on the mevalonate pathway for conversion of acetyl coenzyme A to isopentenyl diphosphate. Mevalonate kinase catalyzes a key reaction in this pathway. In this study the enzyme from Staphylococcus aureus was expressed in Escherichia coli, isolated in a highly purified form, and characterized. The overall amino acid sequence of this enzyme was very heterologous compared with the sequences of eukaryotic mevalonate kinases. Analysis by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and analytical gel filtration chromatography suggested that the native enzyme is a monomer with a molecular mass of approximately 33 kDa. The specific activity was 12 U/mg, and the pH optimum was 7.0 to 8.5. The apparent K(m) values for R,S-mevalonate and ATP were 41 and 339 micro M, respectively. There was substantial substrate inhibition at millimolar levels of mevalonate. The sensitivity to feedback inhibition by farnesyl diphosphate and its sulfur-containing analog, farnesyl thiodiphosphate, was characterized. These compounds were competitive inhibitors with respect to ATP; the K(i) values were 46 and 45 micro M for farnesyl diphosphate and its thio analog, respectively. Parallel measurements with heterologous eukaryotic mevalonate kinases indicated that S. aureus mevalonate kinase is much less sensitive to feedback inhibition (K(i) difference, 3 orders of magnitude) than the human enzyme. In contrast, both enzymes tightly bound trinitrophenyl-ATP, a fluorescent substrate analog, suggesting that there are similarities in structural features that are important for catalytic function.     

High-throughput enzyme screening platform for the IPP-bypass mevalonate pathway for isopentenol production

Isopentenol (or isoprenol, 3-methyl-3-buten-1-ol) is a drop-in biofuel and a precursor for commodity chemicals such as isoprene. Biological production of isopentenol via the mevalonate pathway has been optimized extensively in Escherichia coli, yielding 70% of its theoretical maximum. However, high ATP requirements and isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) toxicity pose immediate challenges for engineering bacterial strains to overproduce commodities utilizing IPP as an intermediate. To overcome these limitations, we developed an “IPP-bypass” isopentenol pathway using the promiscuous activity of a mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase (PMD) and demonstrated improved performance under aeration-limited conditions. However, relatively low activity of PMD toward the non-native substrate (mevalonate monophosphate, MVAP) was shown to limit flux through this new pathway. By inhibiting all IPP production from the endogenous non-mevalonate pathway, we developed a high-throughput screening platform that correlated promiscuous PMD activity toward MVAP with cellular growth. Successful identification of mutants that altered PMD activity demonstrated the sensitivity and specificity of the screening platform. Strains with evolved PMD mutants and the novel IPP-bypass pathway increased titers up to 2.4-fold. Further enzymatic characterization of the evolved PMD variants suggested that higher isopentenol titers could be achieved either by altering residues directly interacting with substrate and cofactor or by altering residues on nearby α-helices. These altered residues could facilitate the production of isopentenol by tuning either k_cat or K_i of PMD for the non-native substrate. The synergistic modification made on PMD for the IPP-bypass mevalonate pathway is expected to significantly facilitate the industrial scale production of isopentenol.     

Cloning of a gene cluster encoding enzymes responsible for the mevalonate pathway from a terpenoid-antibiotic-producing Streptomyces strain

A gene cluster encoding enzymes responsible for the mevalonate pathway was isolated from Streptomyces griseolosporeus strain MF730-N6, a terpenoid-antibiotic terpentecin producer, by searching a flanking region of the 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase gene, which had been previously isolated by complementation. By DNA sequencing of an 8.9-kb BamHI fragment, 7 genes encoding geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGDPS), mevalonate kinase (MK), mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase (MDPD), phosphomevalonate kinase (PMK), isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) isomerase, HMG-CoA reductase, and HMG-CoA synthase were suggested to exist in that order. Heterologous expression of these genes in E. coli and Streptomyces lividans, both of which have only the nonmevalonate pathways, suggested that the genes for the mevalonate pathway were included in the cloned DNA fragment. The GGDPS, MK, MDPD, PMK, IPP isomerase, and HMG-CoA synthase were expressed in E. coli. Among them, the recombinant GGDPS, MK, and IPP isomerase were confirmed to have the expected activities. This is the first report, to the best of our knowledge, about eubacterial MK with direct evidence.     

Two independent biochemical pathways for isopentenyl diphosphate and isoprenoid biosynthesis in higher plants

In the early times of isoprenoid research, a single pathway was found for the formation of the C₅ monomer, isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP), and this acetate/mevalonate pathway was supposed to occur ubiquitously in all living organisms. Now, 40 years later, a totally different IPP biosynthesis route has been detected in eubacteria, green algae and higher plants. In this new pathway glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP) and pyruvate are precursors of isopentenyl diphosphate, but not acetyl-CoA and mevalonic acid. In green tissues of three higher plants it was shown that all chloroplastbound isoprenoids (β-carotene, phytyl chains of chlorophylls and nona-prenyl chain of plastoquinone-9) are formed via the GAP/pyruvate pathway, whereas the cytoplasmic sterols are formed via the acetate/mevalonate pathway. Also, isoprene, emitted by various plants at high light conditions by action of the plastid-bound isoprene synthase, is formed via the new GAP/pyruvate pathway. Thus, in higher plants, there exist two separate and biochemically different IPP biosynthesis pathways: (1) the novel alternative GAP/pyruvate pathway apparently bound to the plastidic compartment and (2) the classical cytoplasmic acetate/mevalonate pathway. This new GAP/pyruvate pathway for IPP formation allows a reasonable interpretation of previous odd results concerning the biosynthesis of chloroplast isoprenoids, which, so far, had mainly been interpreted assuming compartmentation differences. The novel GAP/pyruvate pathway for IPP formation in plastids appears as a heritage of their prokaryotic, endosymbiotic ancestors.     

Farnesyl diphosphate synthase. Altering the catalytic site to select for geranyl diphosphate activity

Farnesyl diphosphate synthase (FPPase) catalyzes chain elongation of the C(5) substrate dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) to the C(15) product farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) by addition of two molecules of isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP). The synthesis of FPP proceeds in two steps, where the C(10) product of the first addition, geranyl diphosphate (GPP), is the substrate for the second addition. The product selectivity of avian FPPase was altered to favor synthesis of GPP by site-directed mutagenesis of residues that form the binding pocket for the hydrocarbon residue of the allylic substrate. Amino acid substitutions that reduced the size of the binding pocket were identified by molecular modeling. FPPase mutants containing seven promising modifications were constructed. Initial screens using DMAPP and GPP as substrates indicated that two of the substitutions, A116W and N144'W, strongly discriminated against binding of GPP to the allylic site. These observations were confirmed by an analysis of the products from reactions with DMAPP in the presence of excess IPP and by comparing the steady-state kinetic constants for the wild-type enzyme and the A116W and N114W mutants.     

Genoprotective pathways. II. Attenuation of oxidative DNA damage by isopentenyl diphosphate

Oxidative stress is believed to play a role in the pathogenesis of many diseases. Here we report that isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP), the 5-carbon building unit of all isoprenoids, is a potent antioxidant that is capable of inhibiting oxidative DNA damage at picomolar concentrations (IC50 = 1.7 x 10(-11) M). The diphosphate moiety is essential, since isopentenyl monophosphate (IMP) is unable to trigger antioxidative signaling. The 20-carbon isoprenyl, geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP), but not the 15-carbon farnesyl diphosphate, displays similar genoprotective effects. The pathway activated by IPP is distinct from that of 2-chloroadenosine (2CA). 2CA-mediated genoprotective signaling is transduced through an A2a or A2b adenosine receptor (AR) and can be blocked by the cyclic AMP (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase (PKA) inhibitor, H-89. In contrast, IPP signaling is independent of A2aAR, A2bAR, cAMP or PKA. Unlike the 2CA-mediated pathway, the effect of IPP is dependent on the mevalonate pathway, a geranylgeranylated protein and on intact proteasome activity. Thus, IPP is a potent activator of a novel genoprotective pathway. These findings shed new light on the role of isoprenoids in oxidative stress biology and may help to develop novel preventive strategies against oxidative damage.     

Mutational analysis of allylic substrate binding site of Micrococcus luteus B-P 26 undecaprenyl diphosphate synthase

Undecaprenyl diphosphate (UPP) synthase catalyzes the sequential cis-condensation of isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) onto (E,E)-farnesyl diphosphate (FPP). In our previous reports on the Micrococcus luteus B-P 26 UPP synthase, we have shown that the conserved residues in the disordered region from Ser-74 to Val-85 is crucial for the binding of FPP and the catalytic function [Fujikura, K., et al. (2000) J. Biochem. (Tokyo) 128, 917-922] and the existence of a structural P-loop motif for the FPP binding site [Fujihashi, M., et al. (2001) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 98, 4337-4342]. To elucidate the allylic substrate binding site in more detail, we prepared eight mutant enzymes and examined their kinetic behavior. The mutant with respect to the two complementarily conserved Arg residues among the structural P-loop motif, G32R-R42G, retained the activity and showed product distribution pattern exactly similar to that of the wild-type, indicating that the complementarily conserved Arg is important for maintaining the catalytic function. Substitutions of Asp-29, Arg-33, or Arg-80 with Ala resulted in a large loss of enzyme activity, suggesting that these residues are essential for catalytic function. However, the K(m) values of these mutant enzymes for Z-GGPP, which is the first intermediate during the enzymatic cis-condensations of IPP onto FPP, were only moderately different or little changed from those of the wild type. These results suggest that the binding site for the intermediate Z-GGPP having a cis double bond is different to that for the intrinsic allylic substrate, FPP, whose diphosphate moiety is recognized by the structural P-loop.