Paleobiology, palaeopathology and necrophobic practices in early Iron Age burials (IX-VII century BC) in Capo Colonna, Trani, Apulia, southern Italy--the state of health of a small sample from Iron Age

In this palaeobiological and palaeopathological study of skeletal remains, we attempt to define the physical characteristics, living conditions and the state of health of a small sample from two early Iron Age (IX-VIII century BC) graves at Capo Colonna, Trani (Bari, Apulia, southern Italy). In the thoraco-lumbar segment (T11-L1) of the vertebral column of an adult male 35 years old, we found wedge-shaped deformation of the anterior part of T12 with kyphosis of the affected tract. Digital radiography and volumetric reconstruction by 3D CT indicated that the alteration did not result from an infectious process (Pott's disease). Instead, it was a traumatic lesion probably caused by falling from a height. The archaeological investigation revealed extraordinary arrangements of the bodies in the graves: they were buried with a boulder placed on the coffin. This practice has been seen in similar graves in the Balkan area, particularly in Greece, from the Neolithic to the Early Middle Ages. The most likely explanation is a funeral ritual characterized by necrophobia, the purpose of which was to prevent the deceased from returning to terrorize the living.     

The house mouse progression in Eurasia: a palaeontological and archaeozoological approach

A palaeontological and archaeozoological survey has allowed us to establish the different steps in the colonization of western Eurasia and northern Africa by the house mouse Mus musculus . After successive immigration waves of the genus Mus into this zone from the late Pliocene to the upper Pleistocene, the house mouse appeared and remained confined to the easternmost Mediterranean Basin at the uppermost Pleistocene. The first progression of this species into the Mediterranean Basin occurred in the Middle East from the Epipaleolithic to the Neolithic. Subsequently, this species was found in the western Mediterranean Basin during the Bronze Age and in north-west Europe during the Iron Age. In comparison to this latter zone, north central Europe was colonized relatively early, from the Neolithic to the Bronze Age which may, in fact, not only correspond to a much earlier invasion of Europe by M. musculus musculus but also suggest that the distribution of this subspecies extended much further west than it does nowadays, at a time when M. musculus domesticus was restricted to the Mediterranean zone. This archaeological survey is in agreement with genetic data which provide indications as to the speed, steps and pathways of progression of house mouse populations in western Eurasia.     

House mouse dispersal in Iron Age Spain: a geometric morphometrics appraisal

During the Iron Age, sea trade in the Mediterranean increased, particularly with the expansion of Phoenician and Greek colonies in the Western Mediterranean. A side effect of these human movements was the involuntary dispersion of commensal species, such as the house mouse (Mus musculus domesticus). One archaeological layer dated from the 4th Century BC, coming from an Iberian village located in the Mediterranean coast of Spain, contained a large and reliable accumulation of small mammals. The presence of the house mouse was highly suspected within this layer. To assess its abundance quantitatively, we used a geometric morphometrics approach of the first lower molar contour using elliptical Fourier analysis. We also increased the power of the discrimination between the Algerian mouse (Mus spretus) and the house mouse by combining a dimension reduction approach together with different validation procedures. The relative importance of age, sex, and geographical origin onto the shape and form of the lower molar contour was also investigated. The results obtained demonstrate the presence and the dominance of the house mouse in the landscape surrounding the Iberian village in the 1st Millennium BC, only a few centuries after its arrival in the Western Mediterranean Basin. A cross‐validated linear discriminant function considering different Mediterranean populations suggest Morocco and France as the most probable geographical origins for the Algerian mouse, and Tunisia for the origin of house mice in North‐Eastern Spain. © 2011 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2011, 102 , 483–497.     

Never Mind the Bottle. Archaeobotanical Evidence of Beer-brewing in Mediterranean France and the Consumption of Alcoholic Beverages During the 5th Century BC

This article reports on an example of early archaeobotanical evidence for beer-making in Iron Age South-Eastern France. An archaeological sample from a fifth century BC house at the site of Roquepertuse produced a concentration of carbonized barley (Hordeum vulgare) grains. The sample was taken from the floor of the dwelling, close to a hearth and an oven. The barley grains are predominantly sprouted and we argue that the assemblage represents the remains of deliberate malting. Malt was most likely related to beer-brewing. The neighboring oven could have been used to stop the germination process at the desired level by drying or roasting the grain. Beer-making evidence in Roquepertuse is discussed in the context of the consumption of alcoholic beverages in the Iron Age Western Mediterranean using archaeological and historical data.     

The mystery of Etruscan origins: novel clues from Bos taurus mitochondrial DNA

The Etruscan culture developed in Central Italy (Etruria) in the first millennium BC and for centuries dominated part of the Italian Peninsula, including Rome. The history of the Etruscans is at the roots of Mediterranean culture and civilization, but their origin is still debated: local or Eastern provenance? To shed light on this mystery, bovine and human mitochondrial DNAs (mtDNAs) have been investigated, based on the well-recognized strict legacy which links human and livestock populations. In the region corresponding to ancient Etruria (Tuscany, Central Italy), several Bos taurus breeds have been reared since historical times. These breeds have a strikingly high level of mtDNA variation, which is found neither in the rest of Italy nor in Europe. The Tuscan bovines are genetically closer to Near Eastern than to European gene pools and this Eastern genetic signature is paralleled in modern human populations from Tuscany, which are genetically close to Anatolian and Middle Eastern ones. The evidence collected corroborates the hypothesis of a common past migration: both humans and cattle reached Etruria from the Eastern Mediterranean area by sea. Hence, the Eastern origin of Etruscans, first claimed by the classic historians Herodotus and Thucydides, receives strong independent support. As the Latin philosopher Seneca wrote: Asia Etruscos sibi vindicat (Asia claims the Etruscans back).     

Reconstructing past cultural landscape and human impact using pollen and plant macroremains

Abstract

Three examples of plant landscape shaping, carried out by Iron Age populations living in different geographical areas, are presented. The examples differ in population type (Garamantes, Etruscans, and Romans), archaeological context (settlement, necropolis, furnace, port), and area of plant exploitation (respectively, Fezzan – Libyan Sahara and Tuscany, Latium – central Italy). The leitmotiv of the three parallel investigations highlighted that humans induced clear changes in plant cover modifying the quantitative ratio among native elements and spreading the plants of economic interest even outside of their natural habitats. Micro- and macroremain analyses once more enhanced that landscape reconstruction depends on both wild and cultivated plants, and that the cultural plant landscape is composed of a complex mixture of indigenous and exotic elements. Archaeobotany results in great help in reviewing ancient prejudices, rewriting history in a modern ecological view, also discovering a different role in the landscape evolution of past civilizations. In this light, the Garamantes deeply transformed the oases in agrarian producer sites, and the Etruscans, in the area of the Gulf of Follonica, modified the previous forest vegetation, probably enhancing the xeric features. The Romans, believed as the main creators of the environmental changes in the Mediterranean basin, surprisingly did not produce consistent plant changes in the area of the Tiber delta, in the surroundings of the imperial port of Rome, during the first century AD.     

An Ancient Mediterranean Melting Pot: Investigating the Uniparental Genetic Structure and Population History of Sicily and Southern Italy

Due to their strategic geographic location between three different continents, Sicily and Southern Italy have long represented a major Mediterranean crossroad where different peoples and cultures came together over time. However, its multi-layered history of migration pathways and cultural exchanges, has made the reconstruction of its genetic history and population structure extremely controversial and widely debated. To address this debate, we surveyed the genetic variability of 326 accurately selected individuals from 8 different provinces of Sicily and Southern Italy, through a comprehensive evaluation of both Y-chromosome and mtDNA genomes. The main goal was to investigate the structuring of maternal and paternal genetic pools within Sicily and Southern Italy, and to examine their degrees of interaction with other Mediterranean populations. Our findings show high levels of within-population variability, coupled with the lack of significant genetic sub-structures both within Sicily, as well as between Sicily and Southern Italy. When Sicilian and Southern Italian populations were contextualized within the Euro-Mediterranean genetic space, we observed different historical dynamics for maternal and paternal inheritances. Y-chromosome results highlight a significant genetic differentiation between the North-Western and South-Eastern part of the Mediterranean, the Italian Peninsula occupying an intermediate position therein. In particular, Sicily and Southern Italy reveal a shared paternal genetic background with the Balkan Peninsula and the time estimates of main Y-chromosome lineages signal paternal genetic traces of Neolithic and post-Neolithic migration events. On the contrary, despite showing some correspondence with its paternal counterpart, mtDNA reveals a substantially homogeneous genetic landscape, which may reflect older population events or different demographic dynamics between males and females. Overall, both uniparental genetic structures and TMRCA estimates confirm the role of Sicily and Southern Italy as an ancient Mediterranean melting pot for genes and cultures.     

Wood usage and its influence on the environment from the Neolithic until the Iron Age: a case study of the graves at Flintbek (Schleswig–Holstein, Northern Germany)

The investigated area near Flintbek (Schleswig–Holstein, Northern Germany) was used as a burial ground from the Neolithic until the Iron Age. Due to modern agriculture, the above-ground funerary monuments have been destroyed. Rescue excavations from 1976 to 1996 recovered the archaeological remains. In addition to the archaeological reassessment of the findings, further scientific analyses were carried out. The results of the charcoal analyses are presented in this paper. The overall spectrum of wood species represents the typical species composition of mixed oak forests. Over the whole investigated time span (Neolithic–Iron Age) these species alternate with a second group of taxa: species benefiting from better light conditions. In times of intensive human impact, these light-demanding taxa gained considerable importance, showing the opening of the wooded landscape. In phases with less human impact, a regeneration of mixed oak forest is detectable. For the Neolithic it was possible to develop a more detailed picture of wood usage based on 162 radiocarbon dates of 106 samples. These illustrate considerable changes during the Neolithic, which resulted in a varied pattern of open land and closed forest influenced by human presence and land use. Another important aspect of the Flintbek area is the handling of samples deriving from different contexts. While charcoal samples related to fire usage or grave constructions contain only slight contamination, samples from fillings (pits, burial layers) are characterized by charcoal dating being either too old or even too young for the archaeological context.     

Cranial trauma in iron age Samnite agriculturists, Alfedena, Italy: implications for biocultural and economic stress

The Samnites are an Iron Age protohistoric people from the central region of Italy. The skeletal remains are from the Alfedena necropolis, 6th through 5th centuries B.C. Macchiarelli et al. (Antropologia Contemporanea 4 (1981) 239-243) were the first to report on cranial trauma for this population, presenting four cases with extreme injuries. We re-examined this well documented skeletal population for additional examples of trauma. Previously unexamined remains from Alfedena, excavated at the turn of the 20th century, are also included in our analysis (Mariani. 1901. "Aufidena", ricerche archeologiche e storiche del Sannio settentrionale. Roma: Acc Naz Dei Lincei). Of the 209 adult crania examined, 12.9% of them exhibited trauma. Analysis of location and frequency of cranial trauma revealed that cranial injuries to the head appear to originate from all directions. The high rate of cranial trauma underscores the violent circumstances experienced during the Iron Age protohistoric period of central Italy. Males are much more likely to exhibit cranial injury than females (P = 0.009). We conclude that the injuries received by Samnite male farmer-warriors occurred while defending pastoral-agricultural resources. Trauma rates are similar for some Iron Age populations and not for others. Behavior associated with violence during the Iron Age period can not be generalized for all populations found in Italy.     

Natural resources and agriculture during the Iron Age in Ostrobothnia,western Finland,investigated by pollen analysis

In Ostrobothnia, western Finland, the Viking period (A.D. 800–1050) in contrast to the rich Migration period (A.D. 400–550/600), is poor in archaeological finds. Archaeologists have interpreted this as indicating a break in settlement continuity. Palaeoecological investigations using pollen analyses and radiocarbon dating of peat cores from ten sites show that field cultivation and animal husbandry have taken place continuously throughout the entire Iron Age in Ostrobothnia. Slash-and-burn cultivation was not of importance in the studied area, but small-scale cereal cultivation occurred on permanent, tilled and manured fields. The Iron Age agriculture was largely dependent on animal husbandry and therefore was located close to the sea because the natural, highly productive shore meadows were an indispensable fodder resource. As a consequence of the progressive rapid change of the natural environment caused by the flat topography and land upheaval, the settlements were regularly relocated to keep pace with the westwards retreating sea. Settlement continuity in Iron Age coastal Ostrobothnia has to be looked upon in a regional rather than a local perspective because of the changing landscape. The results of this palaeoecological study, in which investigations were carried out in several parts of the region, demonstrate regional settlement continuity throughout the Iron Age.     

Molecular characterization of olive (Olea europaea L.) Sicilian cultivars using SSR markers

Olive (Olea europaea L.) is one of the economically most important fruit crops for the Mediterranean area, with production being mainly destined to oil extraction. In Sicily, olive has been cultivated since ancient times and its germplasm is characterized by a wide genetic diversity that could be related to its domestication and spread in ancient times, and to some reproductive biological peculiarities as self-incompatibility. This analysis was conducted on 65 genotypes with the purpose of characterizing a large collection of Sicilian accessions (47 genotypes) and to compare them with varieties coming from Southern Italy and from the most important countries of the Mediterranean basin. With this aim we used 8 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers, which detected a total of 74 alleles and identified an average of 19.5 genotypes in the population investigated. A larger variability than expected was found in the analyzed genotypes, some synonymies already reported in literature were confirmed, but also some cultivars considered as identical were discriminated such as in the case of Castriciana, Ogliarola messinese and Passalunara. The whole study revealed a wide intraspecific variability within the gene pool examined, independently from the geographical origin.     

Mitochondrial DNA and Y-chromosomal diversity in ancient populations of domestic sheep (Ovis aries) in Finland: comparison with contemporary sheep breeds

Background

Several molecular and population genetic studies have focused on the native sheep breeds of Finland. In this work, we investigated their ancestral sheep populations from Iron Age, Medieval and Post-Medieval periods by sequencing a partial mitochondrial DNA D-loop and the 5’-promoter region of the SRY gene. We compared the maternal (mitochondrial DNA haplotypes) and paternal (SNP oY1) genetic diversity of ancient sheep in Finland with modern domestic sheep populations in Europe and Asia to study temporal changes in genetic variation and affinities between ancient and modern populations.

Results

A 523-bp mitochondrial DNA sequence was successfully amplified for 26 of 36 sheep ancient samples i.e. five, seven and 14 samples representative of Iron Age, Medieval and Post-Medieval sheep, respectively. Genetic diversity was analyzed within the cohorts. This ancient dataset was compared with present-day data consisting of 94 animals from 10 contemporary European breeds and with GenBank DNA sequence data to carry out a haplotype sharing analysis. Among the 18 ancient mitochondrial DNA haplotypes identified, 14 were present in the modern breeds. Ancient haplotypes were assigned to the highly divergent ovine haplogroups A and B, haplogroup B being the major lineage within the cohorts. Only two haplotypes were detected in the Iron Age samples, while the genetic diversity of the Medieval and Post-Medieval cohorts was higher. For three of the ancient DNA samples, Y-chromosome SRY gene sequences were amplified indicating that they originated from rams. The SRY gene of these three ancient ram samples contained SNP G-oY1, which is frequent in modern north-European sheep breeds.

Conclusions

Our study did not reveal any sign of major population replacement of native sheep in Finland since the Iron Age. Variations in the availability of archaeological remains may explain differences in genetic diversity estimates and patterns within the cohorts rather than demographic events that occurred in the past. Our ancient DNA results fit well with the genetic context of domestic sheep as determined by analyses of modern north-European sheep breeds.     

Arable weed seeds as indicators of regional cereal provenance: a case study from Iron Age and Roman central-southern Britain

The ability to provenance crop remains from archaeological sites remains an outstanding research question in archaeology. Archaeobotanists have previously identified the movement of cereals on the basis of regional variations in the presence of cereal grain, chaff and weed seeds (the consumer–producer debate), and weed seeds indicative of certain soil types, principally at Danebury hillfort. Whilst the former approach has been heavily criticised over the last decade, the qualitative methods of the latter have not been evaluated. The first interregional trade in cereals in Britain is currently dated to the Iron Age hillfort societies of the mid 1st millennium bc. Several centuries later, the development of urban settlements in the Late Iron Age and Roman period resulted in populations reliant on food which was produced elsewhere. Using the case study of central-southern Britain, centred on the oppidum (large fortified settlement) and civitas capital of Silchester, this paper presents the first regional quantitative analysis of arable weed seeds in order to identify the origin of the cereals consumed there. Analysis of the weed seeds which were present with the fine sieve by-products of the glume wheat Triticum spelta (spelt) shows that the weed floras of samples from diverse geological areas can be separated on the basis of the soil requirements of individual taxa. A preliminary finding is that, rather than being supplied with cereals from the wider landscape of the chalk region of the Hampshire Downs, the crops were grown close to Late Iron Age Silchester. The method presented here requires further high quality samples to evaluate this conclusion and other instances of cereal movement in the past.     

From forest to open pastures and fields: cultural landscape development in western Norway inferred from two pollen records representing different spatial scales of vegetation

The cultural landscape development of a farming community in western Norway was investigated through pollen analyses from a lake and a peat/soil profile. The pollen record from the lake indicates that there was a decrease in arboreal pollen (AP) by the end of the Mesolithic period (ca. 4200 cal b.c.), and that a substantial forest clearance occurred during the Bronze Age (ca. 1500 cal b.c.). The latter, together with grazing indicators and cereals, suggests a widespread establishment of farming. At the beginning of the Roman Iron Age there is an increase in heath communities. The pollen diagram from the peat/soil profile shows the forest clearance in the Bronze Age more clearly than the lake profile. This local pollen diagram is compared with modern pollen samples from mown and grazed localities in western Norway. Both analogue matching and ordination (PCA) indicate that the site was characterised by pastures and cereal fields from the Late Bronze Age to the Late Iron Age. An expansion of cereal cultivation took place during the Pre-Roman Iron Age, and an arable field was established at the site after ca. a.d. 800. This investigation illustrates the potential of selecting pollen sites reflecting different spatial scales, and complements the cultural history of the area as inferred from archaeological and historical records.     

Radiocarbon age of carbonate in fruits of Lithospermum from the early Bronze Age settlement of Hirbet ez-Zeraqōn (Jordan)

Uncarbonized fruits of the Boraginaceae occur widely in cultural layers of archaeological sites in the Mediterranean and the Near East. To date, interpreting their origin remains problematic. It is difficult for archaeobotanists to tell whether such fruits were deposited as part of the cultural layer or were introduced post-depositionally. In an attempt to answer this question for the early Bronze Age site of Hirbet ez-Zeraqon (Jordan), we used direct ¹⁴C dating of biogenic carbonate from calcareous fruits of Lithospermum. The radiocarbon ages of seven fossil samples of the fruits suggest that they originate from plants that grew during or around the time of occupation.     

Tracing the Origin of the East-West Population Admixture in the Altai Region (Central Asia)

A recent discovery of Iron Age burials (Pazyryk culture) in the Altai Mountains of Mongolia may shed light on the mode and tempo of the generation of the current genetic east-west population admixture in Central Asia. Studies on ancient mitochondrial DNA of this region suggest that the Altai Mountains played the role of a geographical barrier between West and East Eurasian lineages until the beginning of the Iron Age. After the 7th century BC, coinciding with Scythian expansion across the Eurasian steppes, a gradual influx of East Eurasian sequences in Western steppes is detected. However, the underlying events behind the genetic admixture in Altai during the Iron Age are still unresolved: 1) whether it was a result of migratory events (eastward firstly, westward secondly), or 2) whether it was a result of a local demographic expansion in a ‘contact zone’ between European and East Asian people. In the present work, we analyzed the mitochondrial DNA lineages in human remains from Bronze and Iron Age burials of Mongolian Altai. Here we present support to the hypothesis that the gene pool of Iron Age inhabitants of Mongolian Altai was similar to that of western Iron Age Altaians (Russia and Kazakhstan). Thus, this people not only shared the same culture (Pazyryk), but also shared the same genetic east-west population admixture. In turn, Pazyryks appear to have a similar gene pool that current Altaians. Our results further show that Iron Age Altaians displayed mitochondrial lineages already present around Altai region before the Iron Age. This would provide support for a demographic expansion of local people of Altai instead of westward or eastward migratory events, as the demographic event behind the high population genetic admixture and diversity in Central Asia.     

The Palaeoenvironmental Impact of Prehistoric Settlement and Proto-Historic Urbanism: Tracing the Emergence of the Oppidum of Corent,Auvergne, France

Early human societies and their interactions with the natural world have been extensively explored in palaeoenvironmental studies across Central and Western Europe. Yet, despite an extensive body of scholarship, there is little consideration of the environmental impacts of proto-historic urbanisation. Typically palaeoenvironmental studies of Bronze and Iron Age societies discuss human impact in terms of woodland clearance, landscape openness and evidence for agriculture. Although these features are clearly key indicators of human settlement, and characterise Neolithic and early to Middle Bronze Age impacts at Corent, they do not appear to represent defining features of a protohistoric urban environment. The Late Iron Age Gallic Oppidum of Corent is remarkable for the paucity of evidence for agriculture and strong representation of apophytes associated with disturbance. Increased floristic diversity – a phenomenon also observed in more recent urban environments – was also noted. The same, although somewhat more pronounced, patterns are noted for the Late Bronze Age and hint at the possibility of a nascent urban area. High percentages of pollen from non-native trees such as Platanus, Castanea and Juglans in the late Bronze Age and Gallic period also suggest trade and cultural exchange, notably with the Mediterranean world. Indeed, these findings question the validity of applying Castanea and Juglans as absolute chronological markers of Romanisation. These results clearly indicate the value of local-scale palaeoecological studies and their potential for tracing the phases in the emergence of a proto-historic urban environment.     

Historical biogeography of olive domestication (Olea europaea L.) as revealed by geometrical morphometry applied to biological and archaeological material

Aim This study intends to improve our understanding of historical biogeography of olive domestication in the Mediterranean Basin, particularly in the north-western area. Location Investigations were performed simultaneously on olive stones from extant wild populations, extant cultivated varieties from various Mediterranean countries, and archaeological assemblages of Spanish, French and Italian settlements. Methods A combination of morphometrics (traditional and geometrical) allowed us to study both the size and shape of endocarp structure. Concerning shape, a size-standardized method coupled with fitted polynomial regression analysis was performed. Results We found morphological criteria for discriminating between wild and cultivated olive cultivars, and established patterns of morphological variation of olive material according to the geographical origin (for extant material) and to the age of the olive forms (for archaeological material). Levels of morphological convergences and divergences between wild olive populations and cultivated varieties are presented as evidence. Main conclusions Morphological changes of endocarps of olive under domestication at both geographical and chronological scales provide new criteria for the identification of olive cultivars. They allow to determine the origins of cultivated forms created and/or introduced in the north-western Mediterranean regions and to understand how human migrations affected the rest of the Western Mediterranean regions. A model of diffusion of olive cultivation is proposed. It shows evidence of an indigenous origin of the domestication process, which is currently recognized in the north-western area since the Bronze Age.     

Dental enamel hypoplasias and health changes in the Middle Bronze Age - Early Iron Age transition at Pella in Jordan.

Dental enamel hypoplasias are increasingly being used in epidemiological studies as indicators of health within both modern and prehistoric populations. This symptom of growth disruption is used here to examine possible changes in health occurring at the transition between the Bronze Age and Iron Age in Jordan, through examination of enamel hypoplasias in skeletal remains from two tombs at the archaeological site of Pella. A small but not statistically significant difference in the prevalence and frequency of hypoplastic defects was found between the two time periods. These results suggest that the political and economic changes occurring at this time were not sufficiently stressful to cause a dramatic deterioration in health at the onset of the Early Iron Age.     

Archaeobotanical evidence of the function of four-post structures in Denmark

Through archaeobotanical analysis and discussion of the abundant charred macrofossils in samples from a burnt down four-post structure at an Early Roman Iron Age farmstead (ad 1-150) at Kulerup, Sjælland (Zealand) in Denmark, this article aims to shed new light upon the functions of this type of structure in Denmark. Based on the analysis of the distribution of charred plant remains there, it is argued that at the time the structure was destroyed by fire it was being used for storing cereals, which were possibly unthreshed. Supplemented by archaeological evidence as well as archaeobotanical records from a number of other Bronze and Iron Age four-post structures from northwest Europe, the plant macrofossil assemblage from Kulerup reinforces the interpretation of these structures for storage of plant products. Four- and multiple post structures are known as parts of farm units well into historical times, and so comparative historical records are also considered as a source of information about their primary functions.