Blood lead level and nutritional status indicators in preadolescent Polish schoolchildren

BackgroundEnvironmental pollutions with heavy metals may have toxic effects on human health and development. One of the most detrimental is lead exposure, which may disturb neurodevelopment and linear growth in children. However, data on the effect of lead exposure on nutritional and weight status in children are limited, thus this study aimed to assess the effect of blood lead (Pb) level on nutritional and weight status in preadolescent schoolchildren from the industrialized, mining region in southwestern Poland.MethodsOur study sample involved N = 709 schoolchildren (402 boys and 307 girls) in the preadolescent developmental period (7–11 years of age for boys and 7–10 years of age for girls). Anthropometric measurements were used to assess nutritional and weight status: body mass index (BMI), mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) and skinfolds thicknesses (triceps, subscapular, abdominal and the sum of skinfolds). Blood Pb level was evaluated and divided into two groups: above (>3.7 μg/dL) and below median value (≤3.7 μg/dL).ResultsAnalysis of covariance (with children’s age controlled as a covariate) revealed that children with blood Pb level above median value had significantly lower values of BMI, MUAC and all skinfolds (at least p < 0.01). However, this effect was significant only in boys, whereas in girls differences were non-significant (p > 0.05). The highest effect size of blood Pb level was noted for skinfolds thicknesses (partial η²: 0.015 for the sum of skinfolds).ConclusionsNutritional status in children with higher blood Pb level is significantly impaired in preadolescent boys, who appear to be more sensitive to this environmental factor. Our findings indicate a particular need for nutritional and environmental interventions among preadolescent children in regions with higher lead exposure.     

Ubiquinone-10 plasma concentrations in healthy European children

The reduced form of ubiquinone-10 (coenzyme Q) has been shown to represent an important physiologic antioxidant principle in human blood. In order to establish a reference range for infants, we measured plasma levels of ubiquinone in 50 healthy European children aged 2 months to 15 years. A mean ±SD) value of 0.75±0.27 μg/ml plasma (0.87±0.31 μM) was determined; ubiquinone concentrations were not found to be sex-dependent (0.7±0.24μg/ml for girls, n=17, and 0.7±0.28μg/ml for boys, n=33) but correlated negatively with age (r = -0.37, P=0.0075). This negative correlation was mainly due to relatively high levels in infants approximately 1 year old.

The mean value determined does not significantly differ from the average ubiquinone plasma concentrations determined in healthy Nigerian children (0.85±0.40 μg/ml, n= 18) in a previous study (Becker K, Boetticher D, Leichsenring M. Internat J Vitam Nutr Res 1995, in press).     

Blood lead in children and associations with trace elements and sociodemographic factors

BackgroundNo safe blood lead concentration in children has been identified. Lead can affect nearly every system in the body and is especially harmful to the developing central nervous system of children.The aim of this study is to analyze blood lead in a population of children and its association with sociodemographic variables, biochemical parameters, copper, iron, selenium and zinc.MethodsWe recruited 155 children (86 boys and 69 girls) with a mean age of 7.3 (SD:4.1). Blood lead and serum selenium concentrations were measured by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. Serum copper and zinc concentrations were measured by flame atomic absorption spectrometry. Serum iron levels were determined by colorimetric assay. A risk exposure questionnaire for lead was administered to the participants.ResultsThe median blood lead level was 1.1 (IQR 0.7–1.6) μg/dL. Regarding risk exposure factors, the youngest children (<2 years) who played outdoors presented a median blood lead concentration of 1.1 μg/dL IQR: 0.48–1.48, compared to the median of 0.3 μg/dL IQR:0.2-0.48 in the children who stated they played at home (p = 0.024). Significant differences were also found when taking into account those parents who smoked (median 1.3 IQR 0.8–1.9 μg/dL vs 0.9 IQR 0.5–1.4 μg/dL of non-smokers, p = 0.002). Children who drank tap water had higher blood lead levels (median 1.2 IQR 0.7–1.6 μg/dL) than those who drank bottled water (median 0.7 IQR 0.2–1.3 μg/dL p = 0.014). In addition, children whose mothers had not finished school had higher blood lead levels (median 1.7 IQR 1.2–2.3 μg/dL) than those whose mothers had finished school (median 1.2 IQR 0.7–1.7 μg/dL) and those whose mothers had gone to university (median 0.9 IQR 0.5–1.4 μg/dL) p = 0.034. In the multivariate lineal regression analysis we continue to observe the association between mother’s higher level of education and lower blood levels (p = 0.04) and the interaction between age and outdoor play (p = 0.0145).ConclusionsIn spite of the decline in blood lead concentrations, associated risk factors continue to exist in vulnerable populations such as children.     

Impacts of Vehicle Emissions and Ambient Atmospheric Deposition in Nigeria on the Pb,Cd, and Ni Content of Fermented Cassava Flour Processed by Sun-Drying

A study of air pollution in Nigeria due to Pb, Cd, and Ni contamination of fermented cassava meant for flour production was carried out by AAS. Fermented cassava samples were purchased from farmers in the study area and one-third of each was oven-dried (OD) while the rest were sun-dried either along roadside (RS-SD) or under ambient atmosphere conditions (AA-SD). Mean concentrations (μg/g) for OD samples in year 2008 were: Pb (0.17 ± 0.04); Cd (0.04 ± 0.01); and Ni (0.27 ± 0.05) while RS-SD samples gave Pb (0.24 ± 0.08), Cd (0.04 ± 0.01), and Ni (0.48 ± 0.17). Mean values (μg/g) in 2009 for OD, AA-SD, and RS-SD, respectively, were Pb (0.03 ± 0.01, 0.05 ± 0.02, 0.15 ± 0.08), Cd (0.18 ± 0.01, 0.04 ± 0.02, 0.05 ± 0.02), and Ni (0.09 ± 0.06, 0.21 ± 0.10, 0.57 ± 0.12). Mean concentrations in sun-dried samples were greater (p < .01), while RS-SD samples were 185% in Pb, 53% in Cd, and 176% in Ni greater (p < .01) than AA-SD samples. With an estimated country-wide annual Pb emissions from petrol and diesel ranging from 616,241 to 968,086 kg, and dust, considered the major source of Cd and Ni, and other extraneous factors including metals adsorbed on pavement surfaces, sun-drying of wet foodstuff on the bare surface of roadside pavements could lead to high levels of Pb, Cd, and Ni in such food compared to drying under factory conditions or oven-drying.     

Monitoring Metals in Blood and Hair of the Population Living Near a Hazardous Waste Incinerator: Temporal Trend

The concentrations of As, Be, Cd, Cr, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sn, Tl, and V were determined in hair of 96 school children and in blood of 144 adults living in the vicinity of a hazardous waste incinerator (HWI) (Constantí, Tarragona County, Catalonia, NE Spain). The results were compared with those obtained in previous (1998 and 2002) surveys performed in the same area. Data were analyzed in terms of age, sex, and specific place of residence. Current mean concentrations in hair ranged between not detected (ND) (As, Be, and Tl) and 1.31 μg/g for Cr. In blood, Be, Hg, Mn, Sn, and Tl levels were under the respective detection limits. The mean blood concentrations of the remaining elements ranged from 0.34 μg/dL for Cd, to 2.40 μg/dL for Pb. Significant differences in hair and blood in relation to gender were only noted for Pb in blood. In general terms, metal concentrations in hair and blood from subjects living in Tarragona County are lower than most levels reported for other countries in recent years.     

Disparities of Selected Metal Levels in the Blood and Scalp Hair of Ischemia Heart Disease Patients and Healthy Subjects

Imbalances in the concentrations of trace metals have become an increasingly recognized source of infirmity worldwide particularly in the development of ischemia heart disease (IHD). Present study is intended to analyze the concentrations of Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Na, Pb, Sr, and Zn in the blood and scalp hair of the patients and counterpart controls by flame atomic absorption spectrometry after wet-acid digestion. On the average, Cd, Co, Cr, Fe, K, Li, Mn, Na, and Pb revealed significantly elevated concentrations in the blood of the patients compared with the controls (p < 0.05), whereas mean levels of Ca, Cd, Fe, K, Li, Pb, and Sr in the scalp hair were significantly higher in the patients than the controls (p < 0.05). Most of the metals exhibited noticeable disparities in their concentrations based on gender, abode, dietary/smoking habits, and occupations of both donor groups. The correlation study and multivariate statistical analyses revealed some significantly divergent associations and apportionment of the metals in both donor groups. Overall, comparative variations of the metal contents in blood/scalp hair of the patients were significantly different than the controls; thus, evaluation of trace metals status may be indicative of pathological disorders, such as IHD.     

Evaluation of Status of Cadmium, Lead, and Nickel Levels in Biological Samples of Normal and Night Blindness Children of Age Groups 3–7 and 8–12 Years

The causes of night blindness in children are multifactorial, and particular consideration has been given to childhood trace metals toxicity, which is the most common problem found in underdeveloped countries. This study was designed to compare the levels of cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and nickel (Ni) in scalp hair, blood, and urine of night blindness children age ranged 3–7 and 8–12 years of both genders, comparing them to sex- and age-matched controls. A microwave-assisted wet acid digestion procedure was developed as a sample pretreatment, for the determination of Cd, Pb, and Ni in biological samples of night blindness children. The proposed method was validated by using conventional wet digestion and certified reference samples of hair, blood, and urine. The digests of all biological samples were analyzed for Cd, Pb, and Ni by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. The results indicated significantly higher levels of Cd, Pb, and Ni in the biological samples (blood, scalp hair, and urine) of male and female night blindness children, compared with control subjects of both genders. These data present guidance to clinicians and other professional investigating toxicity of trace metals in biological samples of night blindness children.     

Association of blood lead levels with neurobehavior and BDNF expression in school going children

BackgroundChildhood Lead (Pb) toxicity has been an ongoing concern for decades; however, its underlying pathogenesis remains unclear. Although its prevalence has come down in developed countries (USA, Europe); it is relatively high in low to middle-income countries of South-East Asia. The current study aimed to evaluate the association of blood lead levels (BLLs) with neurobehavioral alterations and changes in Brain-Derived Neurotropic Factor (BDNF) expression in Indian school children.MethodologySchool going children in age group of 9–15 years (N = 72) were included in the study. Neurobehavioral changes were assessed using Childhood Psychopathological Measurement Schedule (CPMS) and BLL were measured by Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (GFAAS). BDNF mRNA expression and serum BDNF levels were assessed by Real-Time PCR and ELISA, respectively.ResultsMedian BLL was 4.95 μg/dL (IQR = 4.47), very close to the recommended toxic cut off levels (<5 μg/dL). BLLs had a direct correlation with both CPMS scores and BDNF expression. Depression was found to be significantly higher in boys than in girls with high BLLs. BDNF mRNA expression and serum BDNF levels were higher among children with high BLL, although not to significant levels.ConclusionWe report a significant association of neurobehavioral changes with the prevalence of high Pb levels in Indian children. Additionally significant correlation of BDNF with BLL in these children suggests a causal role of BDNF in Pb induced neurological damage.     

Relationships Between Element Contents in Polish Children’s and Adolescents’ Hair

Environment, sex, and age are the main factors which determine the elemental composition of hair. The objective of the study is to determine the contents of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), and cadmium (Cd) in girls’ and boys’ hair in five age groups (within 1–19-year range) corresponding to successive human ontogenesis phases as well as to evaluate the relationships between these elements. Quantitative analysis has been carried out using atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS). Experimental results were analyzed using classic and principal component (PCA) statistical analyses. In particular, differences between contents of particularly Ca, Mg, and Zn in girls’ and boys’ hair were found, and substantial differences between age groups were stated. In general, larger amounts of Ca, Mg, and Zn as compared to boys’ hair have been observed for girls’ hair and higher toxic element (Pb, Cd) contents for boys were measured in some age groups. An increasing trend was found for bioelements (Ca, Mg, Zn) both for girls and boys in all age groups, while for Cu and Fe content, changes are insignificant and even decreasing for teenagers. The most frequently correlating element pairs are Ca–Mg, Ca–Zn, Mg–Zn, and Pb–Cd. Classic and PCA statistics show, in general, a satisfactory consistence. The elemental composition of hair varies depending on the gender and age of children and young people.     

Health risk assessment of heavy metals via dietary intake of wheat in Golestan Province,Iran

Concentration of five heavy metals including lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), and zinc (Zn) in wheat collected from silages of Golestan Province, Iran, was determined using atomic absorption spectroscopy. Dry ashing method was applied for precise determination of the five heavy metal contents. The concentrations of heavy metals were recorded as the following: Pb (0.013–0.14), Cd (0.008–0.031) by graphite furnace method and Cu (0.48–6.2), Fe (58.50–406.9), and Zn (3.41–32.75) by flame method, all in mg.kg^?1. The mean concentration of all the aforementioned heavy metals was (0.057 ± 0.003), (0.016 ± 0.005), (2.7 ± 0.17), (111.2 ± 21), and (5.7 ± 0.22) mg.kg^?1, respectively. The level of heavy metals decreased in the order of Fe>Zn>Cu>Pb > Cd. Highest amount was related to Fe and the lowest amount to Cd. Concentrations of heavy metals in all the wheat samples were below the permissible limits set by the Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization and Iranian National Standard Organization and did not pose any threat to the health of consumers.     

Selenium status of healthy Turkish children

Selenium concentrations, in blood plasma, red blood cells hair of 61 healthy children, ages 0–14 yr, were determined using hydride generation atomic absorption spectrometry. Starting from late lactation period, selenium concentrations in all these matrices were found to be increasing with age. A good correlation was found between erythrocyte and plasma, hair and plasma, and hair and erythrocyte selenium concentrations. Although plasma, erythrocyte, and hair selenium concentrations of girls seemed to be higher than that of boys (only in erythrocytes), selenium concentrations of girls were found to be significantly (p<0.002) higher than that of boys, 71±9 ng/mL, vs 65±10 ng/mL, respectively. Selenium status of Turkish children is found to be lower than that found in the literature; marginal selenium deficiency could be important in the development of some selenium deficiency could be important in the development of some selenium deficiency related diseases. There is a need for extension of this study to healthy children from different regions in Turkey and to different disease states.     

Metal concentrations in hair and cognitive assessment in an adolescent population

The objective of this study was to establish the potential relationship between the levels of various metals in hair and cognitive functions in children living in zones of Tarragona (Catalonia, Spain) with different metal pollution levels. Thirty-nine boys and 61 girls (12-14 yr old) from various schools were selected for the study. The concentrations of cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni), and tin (Sn) in scalp hair were determined by inductively coupled plasma- mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Attention, visuospatial capabilities, and abstract reasoning were assessed as indicators of cognitive impairment. Three categories of attention were defined: low, medium, and high. A significant negative correlation (p=0.019) between Pb levels in hair and attention was observed. Significant differences between Pb levels in hair in low- and medium-performance groups and those in the high-performance group were also found. Moreover, a positive correlation (p=0.048) between Hg hair concentrations and visuospatial capabilities was also noted.     

The zinc,copper, and manganese status of children with malabsorption syndromes and inborn errors of metabolism

The zinc, copper, and manganese status of seven children with malabsorption syndromes of varied etiology (MVE) and 12 with inborn errors of metabolism (IEM) receiving semi-synthetic diets was investigated using serum and hair trace element concentrations, dietary trace element intakes, and anthropometric measurements as the principal indices. The hair zinc levels of both test groups and hair manganese levels of the IEM group were significantly lower (p<0.05) than those of their respective healthy controls matched by age, sex, and geographic location, despite comparable dietary zinc and manganese intakes in test and control subjects. Four subjects from the malabsorption and five from the inborn errors group had hair zinc levels below 100 μg/g (range 30–88 μg/g). Of these nine subjects, serum zinc levels were determined for six, and five were less than normal (range 64–74 μg/dL). In contrast, the copper status of the MVE and IEM subjects, as indicated by hair and dietary copper levels, was not lower than the controls. Mean serum copper levels were 136±30 and 171±40 μg/dL for the IEM and MVE groups, respectively. Levels for the MVE subjects were higher than published normal values. The suboptimal zinc and manganese status observed in some of these test subjects probably arose from malabsorption and decreased availability of dietary zinc and manganese. However, the zinc depletion was not severe enough to result in linear growth retardation.     

Characterization and Distribution of the Selected Metals in the Scalp Hair of Cancer Patients in Comparison with Normal Donors

Eighteen metals were estimated in the scalp hair samples from cancer patients (n = 111) and normal donors (n = 113). Nitric acid–perchloric acid wet digestion procedure was used for the quantification of the selected metals by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry. In the scalp hair of cancer patients, highest average levels were found for Ca (861 μg/g), followed by Na (672 μg/g), Zn (411 μg/g), Mg (348 μg/g), Fe (154 μg/g), Sr (129 μg/g), and K (116 μg/g), whereas in comparison, the dominant metals in the scalp hair of normal donors were Ca (568 μg/g), Zn (177 μg/g), Mg (154 μg/g), Fe (110 μg/g), and Na (103 μg/g). The concentrations of Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Sb, Sr, and Zn were notably higher in the hair of cancer patients as compared with normal donors, which may lead to a number of physiological disorders. Strong positive correlations were found in Mn–Pb (0.83), Cd–Cr (0.82), Cd–Li (0.57), Fe–Pb (0.56), and Fe–Mn (0.55) in the hair of cancer patients whereas Na–Cd, Li–Cr, Li–Co, Co–Cd, Li–Cd, Na–Co, Na–Li, Ca–Mg and Na–Cr exhibited strong relationships (r > 0.50) in the hair of normal donors. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the data revealed seven PCs, both for cancer patients and normal donors, but with significantly different loadings. Cluster Analysis (CA) was also used to support the PCA results. The study evidenced significantly different pattern of metal distribution in the hair of cancer patients in comparison with normal donors. The role of trace metals in carcinogenesis was also discussed.     

Interrelationship of indices of body composition and zinc status in 11-yr-old New Zealand children

Serum zinc and hair zinc concentrations of some New Zealand children aged 11 yr, were examined in relation to selected anthropometric indices. Serum zinc concentrations (n=453) in boys and girls were similar and were unrelated to anthropometric indices and hair zinc concentrations. Mean hair zinc concentration (n=620) of the girls was higher than that for the boys (2.95±0.49 vs 2.46±0.47 μmol/g; p<0.001). Correlation analysis demonstrated that, for the boys, all the studied anthropometric indices, with the exception of height, were significantly related to hair zinc concentration and that the confounding effects of mid-parent height and the timing of the adolescent growth spurt was small. Results for the girls were similar but less significant. Dichotomizing the hair zinc results divided both the boys and girls into two groups: those with hair zinc <2.44 μmol/g were heavier (girls, 39.0 vs 35.2 kg; boys, 36.6 vs 34.7 kg) and fatter (mid-upper-arm fat area: girls, 15.2 vs 12.0 cm²; boys, 11.1 vs 9.5 cm²) compared to their counterparts with hair zinc >2.44 μmol/g. The results demonstrate that in these healthy New Zealand children, those with lower hair zinc concentrations are fatter and heavier than their high-hair-zinc counterparts.     

Hair zinc and copper concentrations and zinc: Copper ratios in pediatric malignancies and healthy children from Southeastern Turkey

Twenty-eight healthy and forty-six children with malignancy admitted to the Pediatrics Oncology Clinic and Outpatient Clinic of Dicle University, Medical Faculty, Department of Pediatrics in 1989–1990 were included into this study. The children under investigation were divided into three groups. Group 1 consisted of 28 healthy children. Twenty-eight children with newly diagnosed malignant disease, before the start of treatment, formed Group 2. Group 3 consisted of eight of these 28 children together with 18 other children with malignancy in complete remission.

1. Mean hair zinc and copper levels, and zinc/copper values for Group 2 were found to be 100.7±6.8 μg/g, 11.0±0.8 μg/g, and 10.0±0.8, respectively.
2. The corresponding values for Group 3 were obtained as 143.5±6.3 μg/g, 7.6±0.4 μg/g, and 20.2±1.4.
3. The values for Group 1 were 142.6±4.5 μg/g, 8.4±0.5 μg/g, and 19.0±1.4, respectively.
4. The differences between control-active-phase and active-phase-remission groups were statistically significant (p<0.01), whereas almost the same values were obtained for the control and remission groups (p>0.05). These results were valid in cases where the comparisons of these three groups were performed also for the subgroups.

It was shown that hair zinc and copper levels and zinc/copper values are useful parameters for the diagnosis and treatment of the children with malignancy because of the fact that hair reflects the integrated trace element concentrations of the body, not the present one.     

Age-Based Differences in Hair Zinc of Vancouver Preschoolers

Marginal zinc deficiency (MZD), the subclinical stage of zinc deficiency, is common in industrialized societies. Serum zinc, the most common biomarker of zinc status, lacks sensitivity and specificity to diagnose this deficiency. Hair zinc, however, is sensitive and specific enough to detect MZD in children. Differences in hair zinc associated with age and sex have been reported. These differences have not been investigated thoroughly; therefore, interpretation of the results of hair analyses is difficult. This cross-sectional study was designed to examine the hair zinc status of a group of Vancouver preschoolers (24–71 months) and assess the age- and sex-based differences in their hair zinc. Hair samples were obtained (n?=?719) and analyzed for zinc using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Our results indicated a mean hair zinc of 115?±?43 μg/g with 17% below the low hair zinc cutoff (70 μg/g). Boys and girls had comparable mean hair zinc, while girls had a significantly higher occurrence of low hair zinc than boys (21% vs. 12%). Children <4 years of age had significantly lower mean hair zinc and higher rate of low hair zinc compared to children ≥4. Our study provides important reference values for the hair zinc of healthy North American preschoolers.     

Hair levels of heavy metals and essential elements in Chinese children with autism spectrum disorder

BackgroundDisproportional heavy metals and essential elements were reported in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) that is obscure in etiology. Inevitably, the association is biased by diet and environmental factors.MethodsFifty pairs, one with ASD and the other living together from the same special school with cerebral palsy (CP), were recruited in Hangzhou (China), aged from 2 to 11 years old (74.0 % male). All samples were divided into two subgroups: preschool-aged (2–5 years old) and school-aged (6–10 years old). Heavy metals (As, Hg, Pb) and essential elements (Al, Ca, Cu, Mg, Mn, Zn) in hair were quantified by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry analysis and flame atomic absorption spectroscopy.ResultsThe children with ASD generally had lower hair levels of Mn (ASD 0.124 μg/g, CP 0.332 μg/g, P = 0.001) compared to the children with CP. After stratification for age, there were no significant differences detected in preschool-aged group. In school-aged group, the results exhibited the children with ASD had higher hair Pb (1.485 μg/g, 0.690 μg/g, P = 0.007) and Cu/Zn ratio (0.092, 0.060, P = 0.003), while hair Hg (0.254 μg/g, 0.353 μg/g, P = 0.016)、Mn (0.089 μg/g, 0.385 μg/g, P = 0.002)、Mg (17.81 μg/g, 24.53 μg/g, P = 0.014) and Zn (100.15 μg/g, 135.83 μg/g, P = 0.007) showed an opposite pattern.ConclusionsThese results suggest an imbalance of Mn in Chinese children with ASD.     

Fractionation,Source Identification and Risk Assessments for Heavy Metals in Soils near a Small-Scale Industrial Area (Çanakkale-Turkey)

Contamination of soils by heavy metals due to urbanization increases various environmental concerns. The objective of this research was to determine the potential sources of heavy metals in agricultural soils in the vicinity of a small-scale industrial area and to assess their environmental impacts. Soil samples were obtained from 15 different locations near a small industrial area in the Çanakkale province of Turkey. Heavy metal (Cd, Co, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn) contents of soil samples were determined with four different geochemical fractions via a sequential extraction procedure. The results revealed that pseudo-total heavy metal concentrations were ordered in decreasing order as Zn > Pb > Cu > Ni > Co > Cd. Considering the results, Cd (1.95 ± 0.12 µg/g), Pb (39.21 ± 2.14 µg/g) and Zn (64.99 ± 8.16 µg/g) values were above the normal values specified for agricultural lands. The findings obtained from sequential extraction procedure showed that Cd (78%) and Pb (65%) existed mostly in mobile phases. Such mobile phases originated mostly from anthropogenic sources. These findings were also supported by chemometric analyses. Risk assessments pointed out that while Pb and Zn have moderate risks on the environment, Cd creates high risks.     

Hair Zinc: an Index for Zinc Status in Under-Five Children from Low-Income Communities in Kanam Area of North-Central Nigeria

Nutritional deficiencies of trace elements are among the top ten causes of death in Sub Saharan Africa. In Kanam Local Government Area of Nigeria, the problem is compounded by high levels of poverty and illiteracy. Abnormally low hair zinc levels are important, sensitive diagnostic biochemical indices of Zinc deficiency. The purpose of this study is to assess the zinc status of children less than 5 years in Kanam local government area, north-central Nigeria, by measuring the zinc level in hair samples collected from 44 under-5 children across the area. A household survey was made to assess the pattern and frequency of consumption of zinc-rich foods which was done by means of questionnaire. Hair samples were analysed for zinc content by the inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrophotometry (ICP-MS). The data were analysed statistically using the Student’s t test, z test, and Pearson correlation, while questionnaire-captured data were analysed by simple arithmetic. The results of the analyses showed that the average hair zinc level was 74.35 ± 48.05 μg/g. This was below the normal range of 130–140 μg/g, for children less than 5 years. Based on the results, 86.36% have hair zinc level below the lower limit of the normal range of 130 μg/g. Between the gender, boys have higher hair zinc content than girls. Data from the questionnaire showed that 53.45% of the population studied have poor/inadequate intake of zinc-rich foods of animal origin, a dietary behaviour reported to predispose to micronutrient deficiency, including zinc.