Ethical considerations in prenatal diagnosis.

Prenatal diagnostic testing raises a number of important ethical issues, some related to diagnostic testing in general and others related to the special circumstances of pregnancy. These issues are most effectively addressed in the context of a broader understanding of the goals of prenatal diagnosis. Our dual obligations--to the pregnant woman and to the fetus--have an important influence on the goals of testing. Testing seldom leads to treatment beneficial to the fetus, but more often can be beneficial to the pregnant woman, particularly if the information provided enhances her ability to make sound decisions about reproductive matters. The process of prenatal diagnostic testing can, however, limit a woman''s sense of control over the decisions made about her pregnancy. It can also provide an opportunity for third parties to become involved in what are usually considered private matters. It is therefore important that the process of testing include adequate counseling and follow-up and that the patient''s confidence be respected. As prenatal diagnostic technology expands, both in terms of patients to be tested and diagnoses to be sought, society will face difficult questions concerning access to testing and the justification for its use.     

Ethical issues in transgenics

The arguments of critics and concerns of the public on generating transgenic cloned animals are analyzed for the absence or presence of logical structure. Critics' arguments are symbolically compared with "genetic trespassing," "genetic speeding," or "going the wrong way," and responses are provided to these arguments. Scientists will be empowered to participate in the public discussion and to engage the critics on these issues as they consider thoughtful, plausible responses to their concerns. Temporary moratoriums are recognized as a plausible approach to dealing with possible concerns of new scientific advancements.     

Ethical issues in biotechnology

New ethical questions have arisen from our ability to intervene in the structure of the genome. Responsible use of this technique requires ethical evaluation in which experts, potential beneficiaries and the general public should all participate. The examples of genetically modified food and of human genetics help to illustrate the issues involved.     

Ethical issues in brain nanomedicine

Brain pathology is a perfect application field for nanotechnologies supporting the concept of nanomedicine. It implies the use of nanosized tools for diagnosis and therapy and finally the switch to nanosized disease. A good illustration is the synergistic association of functional neurosurgery to micro/nanotechnologies. The developments around electrostimulation are a good example of the lower invasivity and better therapeutical efficacy that can be achieved. Nanolevel disease detection and therapy dramatically modifies medical philosophy as well as practice. The demonstration of the validity of the concept of nanomedicine has to be done carefully and this period of validation is a precious time to solve ethical problems. Ethical issues include the problem of disease detection in “healthy patients”; the non medical use of nanotechnologies, and the acceptance of what could be a potentially uncontrollable major modification of the human body. All these items are used against nanotechnologies, thus it will be crucial to inform the public about the state of the art in nanomedicine and about the existing regulations. National and European regulations should be adequate for nanomedicine, provided there is progressive integration instead of a conservative attitude blocking experiments and progress. The European research community has a good opportunity to do that.     

Ethical issues in ethnomusicological filmmaking

This paper investigates ethical issues which the author had to face in making a series of four ethnomusicological films in central Switzerland. Specifically related as well to an experience in filming music, the subjects considered raise questions of general concern in ethnographic filmmaking. Three main matters are discussed: revealing editing devices, which is rarely done in the film itself; the risk of the musicians becoming the laughing stock of the village if they appear to have weaknesses in their performance; and the return of research to those being studied, for their own benefit.     

Ethical issues in translational research

The translation of biomedical research knowledge to effective clinical treatment is essential to the public good and is a main focus of current health policy. However, recent health policy initiatives intended to foster the translation of basic science into clinical and public health advances must also consider the unique bioethical issues raised by the increased focus on translational research. Safety of study participants and balancing of risk due to treatment with the potential benefits of the research is tantamount. This article synthesizes theory from clinical ethics, operational design, and philosophy to provide a bioethical framework for the health policy of translational research.     

Ethical issues in animal cloning

The issue of human reproductive cloning has recently received a great deal attention in public discourse. Bioethicists, policy makers, and the media have been quick to identify the key ethical issues involved in human reproductive cloning and to argue, almost unanimously, for an international ban on such attempts. Meanwhile, scientists have proceeded with extensive research agendas in the cloning of animals. Despite this research, there has been little public discussion of the ethical issues raised by animal cloning projects. Polling data show that the public is decidedly against the cloning of animals. To understand the public's reaction and fill the void of reasoned debate about the issue, we need to review the possible objections to animal cloning and assess the merits of the anti-animal cloning stance. Some objections to animal cloning (e.g., the impact of cloning on the population of unwanted animals) can be easily addressed, while others (e.g., the health of cloned animals) require more serious attention by the public and policy makers.     

Ethical and legal issues in xenotransplantation

In most western countries, there is a 'human organ shortage' with waiting lists for the performance of transplantation. In a recent report of the UNOS Ethics Committee it is stated that there are approximately 31,000 potential recipients on waiting lists, but only one fourth of potential donors gave their specific consent.
Xenotransplantation – defined as the transplantation of animal cells, tissues or organs into human beings – is associated with particular ethical dilemmas, namely the problems of efficiency and safety of this medical procedure. The objective of this study is to analyse the ethical dilemmas in xenotransplantation with the background of a personal view of moral life. Also, xenotransplantation will be evaluated as far as the legal regulation of transplantation is concerned. In particular, we will consider patients rights in accordance with existing laws on organ and tissue transplantation, animal research and clinical trials.     

Ethical issues in ageing and biography

The increasing use of biographical materials in research and intervention in the field of ageing gives rise to significant ethical issues. In this inquiry, four of these issues are explicated. First, the notion of informed consent is explored in relation to selected contexts of research and intervention in ageing and biography. Second, the issues of autonomy and competence are considered from the point of view of identifying contexts where biography is a prerequisite for ethically responsive action. The third ethical issue concerns respecting the groundrules of various biographical approaches. Finally, the notions of authenticity and truth in lifestories are explored in an attempt to clarify the limitations and expectations of ageing and biography. The discussion of these ethical issues proceeds on the basis of an argument that indicates the fundamental importance of biographical ageing or the stories we are.     

Ethical issues in amniocentesis and abortion

The ethical issues surrounding amniocentesis are seen as centering on 4 focal points. First is the policy of the diagnostic treatment center. Here, 2 questions arise: Is the client involved in a high-risk pregnancy? And, if a positive diagnosis is made, will the parents consent to an abortion? Second is the role of the genetic counselor, which is seen as supportive rather than leading. He should assist the prospective parents in reaching a decision to undergo amniocentesis and possible abortion that is mutually acceptable. The prospective parents, the third focal point, may face the question of deciding what is normal. The clients must also realize the terrible strains that are put on a marriage into which a severely defective child has been born. The fourth focal point is public policy. While amniocentesis may appear to threaten some values held important in our society, the author regards the procedure as an interim solution on the road to an understanding of and ability to treat genetic defects.