Altitudinal zonation of Andean cryptogam communities

To test whether cryptogamic plant communities in tropical Andean rain forests are distributed in floristically discrete communities corresponding to altitudinal belts, I subjected the elevational distribution of pteridophytes along two elevational gradients in Bolivia, and of bryophytes and lichens along two transects in Peru and Colombia (data from Gradstein & Frahm, 1987 ; Wolf, 1993 ) to an analysis of deviance. All well‐defined elevational boundaries in floristic composition were related to marked ecological changes: the transition from the steep mountains to the hilly lowland zone coupled with a change in geological substrate at 400 m along the Bolivian Carrasco transect, a strong humidity gradient at 1000 m at the Bolivian Masicurí transect and at 1250–1980 m along the Colombian transect, and the transition from mixed cloud forests to forests dominated by Polylepis or Podocarpus at 3400–3600 m in Carrasco, at 1650–1800 m in Masicurí, and at 3670 m in Colombia. Consequently, floristic elevational belts appear to be well‐defined at strong environmental boundaries and in fairly species‐poor forest communities where the presence or absence of one or a few tree species influences the whole ecosystem while they are ill‐defined in species‐rich communities such as tropical forests at low to mid‐elevations.     

Four new species and new records of Symplocos (Symplocaceae) from Peru and Bolivia, and a key to all species of Symplocos known to occur in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia

Four new species of Symplocos (Symplocaceae) are described from montane forests in Peru. Symplocos cuscoënsis Ståhl (from Dept Cusco) is distinguished inter alia by enlarged floral bracts and anthers that are longer than wide, S. excoriata Ståhl (Dept Amazonas and Cajamarca) by the exfoliating bark on young shoots, S. serratifolia Ståhl (Dept Cajamarca and Cusco) by tomentulose young shoots and lower leaf surfaces as well as long petioles, and S. trichocarpa Ståhl (Dept Cajamarca) by its tuberculate young shoots and pilose fruits. Symplocos guianensis (Aubl.) Gürke is reported as new to Bolivia and S. nitens (Pohl) Benth. is reported as new to Bolivia and Peru. A key to all 67 species of Symplocos known from Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia is provided.     

Distribution and conservation status of the mountain tapir (Tapirus pinchaque) in Peru

The mountain tapir Tapirus pinchaque is one of the largest and most threatened mammals of the northern South American Andes. It is distributed in montane forests and paramos mainly above 2000 m, from Colombia to north Peru. The species is categorised as globally Endangered and is mainly threatened by habitat degradation, habitat loss and fragmentation. Although up-to-date information is lacking in Peru on its distribution, population and conservation status, this population could play an important part in the global persistence of the species. We compiled all known recent occurrence records for the species from Peru, as well as data from camera traps with an effort of over 10,000 camera/days between 2016 and 2018. We modelled the tapir’s distribution using remote-sensed vegetation indices, topographic and bioclimatic variables in MaxEnt, followed by post-processing steps to remove unoccupied areas, to produce a current range map for the species in Peru. We overlaid this with spatial information on threats and protected areas. We estimate a range of almost 183,000 ha in Peru, in two main regions, north and south of the Huancabamba river, of which approximately 60% is within protected areas. However, protection gaps still exist, especially in the south of its range. Mining concessions cover 27% of its current range and we estimate 28,000 ha of forest loss within its extent of occurrence between 2001 and 2020. We provide recommendations for its conservation, including priority areas for increased protection, binational initiatives to ensure connectivity with populations in Ecuador and to use the tapir as a flagship species in efforts to protect montane ecosystems for water conservation.     

Global Diversity and Conservation Priorities in the Cactaceae

The purpose of this paper was to analyze the diversity patterns of Cactaceae at a global scale, to identify those countries where conservation actions should be performed. In order to do this, the species richness and the number of endemic species for 34 American countries were determined. With these data, the relationship between the total number of species or the number of endemic species and the area of the countries were analyzed. In addition, a complementarity analysis was conducted to determine the most important countries for cactus conservation. Results showed that Mexico had the highest number of total and endemic species followed by Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru, among others. There was a significant positive relationship between both, the total and endemic species, and the area of the countries. Despite this fact, the cactus diversity in Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Costa Rica was higher than expected according to their area. Further, these countries also presented the highest proportions of endemic species. The complementarity analysis indicated that 24 countries are necessary to preserve all cactus species. However, 94% of all species could be preserved with only 10 countries. Considering the diversity patterns and the complementarity analysis, three important groups for cactus conservation were identified: (1) Mexico, Argentina, Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Costa Rica, (2) Paraguay and Cuba, and (3) Brazil and USA. Conservation efforts should be focused on these countries in order to preserve cactus diversity.     

Systematics of Oreobates and the Eleutherodactylus discoidalis species group (Amphibia, Anura), based on two mitochondrial DNA genes and external morphology

We present morphological and molecular (mitochondrial DNA, mtDNA) evidence supporting the validity and monophyly of the genus Oreobates . This genus also includes members of the former Eleutherodactylus discoidalis species group plus Eleutherodactylus heterodactylus . The presence of prominent conical subarticular tubercles and prominent supernumerary tubercles associated with the axis of fingers and toes, the presence of glandular axillary pads, and the absence of vocal sacs are proposed as morphological synapomorphies. Species of this taxon form a well-supported crown clade in a phylogeny including members of the genera Craugastor and Eleutherodactylus s.l. The sister taxon to Oreobates is the Eleutherodactylus martinicensis series; Oreobates does not appear to be closely related to the Eleutherodactylus binotatus series or to members of the Eleutherodactylus dolops and Eleutherodactylus nigrovittatus species groups. The taxonomic status of all species of Oreobates is reassessed. Hylodes philippi and Hylodes verrucosus are removed from the synonymy of Oreobates quixensis . We redescribe Oreobates cruralis on the basis of the holotype and new material from Bolivia and Peru, and restrict its distribution to the humid forests of the lowlands and adjacent foothills of the Andes, from southern Peru to central Bolivia. Oreobates granulosus is rediscovered, redescribed, and resurrected, on the basis of the examination of the holotype and additional material from Peru. Phylogenetic analyses of partial 16S mtDNA are used to test the independence of lineages (species). The 14 species of Oreobates are distributed from southern Ecuador to northern Argentina. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 152 , 737–773.     

Identification of the endangered small red brocket deer (Mazama bororo) using noninvasive genetic techniques (Mammalia; Cervidae)

The small red brocket deer Mazama bororo is one of the most endangered deer in the Neotropics. The great morphological similarities with three other sympatric brocket deer species, coupled with the fact that they inhabit densely forested habitats complicate detection and prevent the use of traditional methodologies for accurate identification of species. The ability to determine the presence of this endangered species in an area is crucial for estimating its distribution range, and is critical for establishing conservation management strategies. Here we describe a fast and reliable noninvasive genetic method for species identification of Mazama species from faeces. We designed a primer set that amplifies a short 224-bp fragment of the cytochrome b and demonstrate its effectiveness in successful amplification of DNA isolated from both tissue and faecal samples. This fragment contains a BSTNI/ECORII digestion site that is unique to the endangered M. bororo. The digested polymerase chain reaction products yielded a 160-bp fragment that is clearly visible in a 2% agarose gel. Two other diagnostic sites were identified to differentiate the other three sympatric species, SspI (M. gouazoubira) and AflIII (M. americana, and M. nana).     

Geographic distribution of wild potato species

The geographic distribution of wild potatoes (Solanaceae sect. Petota) was analyzed using a database of 6073 georeferenced observations. Wild potatoes occur in 16 countries, but 88% of the observations are from Argentina, Bolivia, Mexico, and Peru. Most species are rare and narrowly endemic: for 77 species the largest distance between two observations of the same species is <100 km. Peru has the highest number of species (93), followed by Bolivia (39). A grid of 50 × 50 km cells and a circular neighborhood with a radius of 50 km to assign points to grid cells was used to map species richness. High species richness occurs in northern Argentina, central Bolivia, central Ecuador, central Mexico, and south and north-central Peru. The highest number of species in a grid cell (22) occurs in southern Peru. To include all species at least once, 59 grid cells need to be selected (out of 1317 cells with observations). Wild potatoes occur between 38° N and 41° S, with more species in the southern hemisphere. Species richness is highest between 8° and 20° S and around 20° N. Wild potatoes typically occur between 2000 and 4000 m altitude.     

Analysis of Andes frogs (Phrynopus, Leptodactylidae, Anura) phylogeny based on 12S and 16S mitochondrial rDNA sequences

South American leptodactylid frogs of the genus Phrynopus occur in cloud-forest, páramo, subpáramo and puna habitats (1000–4400 m elevation) from Colombia to Bolivia. Currently, there are 34 described species; however, many additional species new to science have been reported from Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. The phylogeny of the species-diverse Phrynopus is unknown and the position of the genus within Leptodactylidae is poorly understood. We present the results of a phylogenetic study based on 12S and 16S mitochondrial rDNA. Fifteen species of Phrynopus from Bolivia to Ecuador are included, along with several other genera of Leptodactylidae and representatives of other frog families. Our results indicate that Phrynopus is phylogenetically nested within Eleutherodactylus , whereas Phyllonastes is phylogenetically nested within Phrynopus . Based on the recovered phylogeny, we transfer Phrynopus simonsii to Eleutherodactylus , and show that Phrynopus carpish needs to be removed from Phrynopus . Eleven of the 13 Phrynopus species occurring in Central Peru share the absence of an external and internal ear.     

Managing sun bears in a changing tropical landscape

Aim

Across the tropics, large‐bodied mammal species are threatened by rapid and widespread forest habitat conversion by either commercial logging or agricultural expansion. How such species use these habitats is an important area of research for guiding their future management. The tropical forest‐dwelling sun bear, Helarctos malayanus, is the least known of the eight bear species. Consequently, the IUCN/SSC Bear Specialist Group ranks research on this species as a top priority. This study aims to investigate landscape variables that influence sun bear habitat use in forests under varying levels of degradation and protection.

Location

A 20,998 km² Sumatra forest landscape covering Kerinci Seblat National Park (KSNP), Batang Hari Protection Forest (BHPF) and neighbouring logging and agricultural concessions.

Methods

An occupancy‐based sampling technique using detection/non‐detection data with 10 landscape covariates was applied in six study areas that operated a total of 125 camera traps. The potential differences between habitat use (ψ) of sun bears were first modelled with broad‐scale covariates of study area, land‐use types and forest type. Sun bear habitat use was then investigated with the finer‐scale landscape features associated within these areas.

Results

From 10,935 trap nights, sun bears were recorded at altitudes ranging from 365 to 1791 m. At a broad‐scale, habitat use increased with protection status, being highest in KSNP (0.688 ± 0.092, ± SE) and BHPF (0.621 ± 0.110) compared to production (0.418 ± 0.121) and convertible (0.286 ± 0.122) forests. Within these areas, sun bears showed a preference for forest that was further from public roads and villages and at a lower elevation.

Main conclusions

The habitat suitability model identified several high‐quality habitat patches outside of the priority conservation areas for immediate protection. Consequently, conservation management strategies should emphasize the importance of high conservation value forests and prohibit further conversion of threatened lowland forests.

     

Richness and uses in a diverse palm site in Bolivia

The study site is located in the southern part of the Iturralde Province, Department of La Paz, in western Bolivia. This area is generally characterized by mixed vegetation types from the tropical mountain forests as well as lowland forests and savannas. It lies in an altitudinal range of 400–1850 m, with an average temperature of 24–28°C and a rainfall of 2000–5000 mm per year. The richness in palms of this region is the highest reported for Bolivia; it comprises 19 genera, 70% of all genera known in Bolivia and 29 palm species (34%). Three main phytogeographic elements are mixed and integrated in the area; palms from the Andean, Amazonian, and Central Brazilian (Cerrado) units are found in approximately 4.5 ha. Nearly 66% of these palm species are concentrated in the mountain forests between 500–1800 m, reaching the highest altitudinal limit in this area, of which the most common species is Iriartea deltoidea. Approximately 55% of the palm species are used by local people — the original ethnic group, the Tacanas, and settlers— in order to get materials for construction, different qualities of thatching, fruit for food and beverages, fibres for artesanal products, medicines and handicrafts.

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El área de estudio está localizada en la región sur de la Provincia Iturralde, del Departmento de La Paz, al oeste de Bolivia. Está caracterizada por una mezcla de tipos de vegetación, que incluye desde bosques montanos tropicales hasta bosques de tierras bajas y sabanas. Se encuentra en un rango altitudinal de 400–1850 m, con un promedio de temperature de 24–28°C y una precipitación de 2000–5000 mm por año. La riqueza de palmas en esta región es la más alta reportada para Bolivia: 19 géneros, que significan el 70% del total de géneros de palmas registrado para Bolivia y 29 especies de palmas (34%). Tres elementos fitogeográficos están mezclados e integrados en el área: en ca. 4.5 ha se encuentran palmas de los Andes, de la Amazonia y del Centro brasileño (cerrado). Aproximadamente el 66% de las especies de palmas está concentrado en los bosques montanos entre 500–1800 m, que alcanzan su mayor límite altitudinal en el área y donde la especie más común es Iriartea deltoidea. Cerca al 55% de las especies de palmas es utilizado por la gente local—como el grupo originario Tacanas y colonos-para la obtención de material de construcción, diferentes calidades de techos, frutos para alimento y bebidas, fibras para productos artesanales, medicinas y artesanías.

     

Genetic Characterization of Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus from Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru: Identification of a New Subtype ID Lineage

Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) has been responsible for hundreds of thousands of human and equine cases of severe disease in the Americas. A passive surveillance study was conducted in Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador to determine the arboviral etiology of febrile illness. Patients with suspected viral-associated, acute, undifferentiated febrile illness of <7 days duration were enrolled in the study and blood samples were obtained from each patient and assayed by virus isolation. Demographic and clinical information from each patient was also obtained at the time of voluntary enrollment. In 2005–2007, cases of Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) were diagnosed for the first time in residents of Bolivia; the patients did not report traveling, suggesting endemic circulation of VEEV in Bolivia. In 2001 and 2003, VEE cases were also identified in Ecuador. Since 1993, VEEV has been continuously isolated from patients in Loreto, Peru, and more recently (2005), in Madre de Dios, Peru. We performed phylogenetic analyses with VEEV from Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru and compared their relationships to strains from other parts of South America. We found that VEEV subtype ID Panama/Peru genotype is the predominant one circulating in Peru. We also demonstrated that VEEV subtype ID strains circulating in Ecuador belong to the Colombia/Venezuela genotype and VEEV from Madre de Dios, Peru and Cochabamba, Bolivia belong to a new ID genotype. In summary, we identified a new major lineage of enzootic VEEV subtype ID, information that could aid in the understanding of the emergence and evolution of VEEV in South America.     

MEGATHERIUM CELENDINENSE SP. NOV. FROM THE PLEISTOCENE OF THE PERUVIAN ANDES and THE PHYLOGENETIC RELATIONSHIPS OF MEGATHERIINES

Abstract:  A new Pleistocene megatheriine, Megatherium celendinense sp. nov., is reported from a cave in the north of the Peruvian Andes. It is the largest Andean Megatheriinae and is characterized by a short, massive, Y-shaped premaxilla unfused to the maxilla, a dorsoventrally compressed occiput perpendicular to the dorsal plane of the cranial roof, prominent and posteriorly extended occipital condyles, an extremely reduced deltopectoral crest and a poorly marked musculospiral groove on the humerus, a rectilinear anterior margin of the distal epiphysis of the tibia, a concave lateral margin of the fibula, discoid and ectal facets of the astragalus clearly separated in dorsolateral view, and a pedestaled articular facet for the meso-entocuneiform on the ectocuneiform. The monophyly of the subfamily is confirmed. ( Pyramiodontherium , Megatheriops , Megatherium and Eremotherium ) constitute a monophyletic clade and ( Pyramiodontherium , Megatheriops ) and ( Eremotherium , Megatherium ) are sister groups. The genus Megatherium includes two clades: ( M. altiplanicum , M. americanum ), subgenus Megatherium , and an Andean lineage ( M. sundti , M. urbinai , M. celendinense sp. nov., M. tarijense , M. medinae ), subgenus Pseudomegatherium . Anatomical characters suggest a more quadrupedal stance for Andean Megatheriinae (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Chile) than those from lower altitude regions.     

Remotely sensed indicators of forest conservation status: Case study from a Natura 2000 site in southern Portugal

The successful implementation of habitat conservation measures demands regular and spatially explicit monitoring and reporting on conservation status at a range of scales, based on indicators of both habitat range and condition (structure and functions required for long-term maintenance). Such is the case with the Natura 2000 protected areas in Europe. Focusing on the cork oak (Quercus suber) forests of one such area, the Serra de Monchique in southern Portugal, we test the complementarity and joint effectiveness of airborne multispectral and laser scanning (lidar) in providing robust indicators of conservation status. Principal forest types and other land covers are mapped to an accuracy of up to 70% (11 land cover classes) and 81% (5 classes) by fusing the two remote sensing datasets, results that are superior to using either one alone. Using previously tested relationships between lidar height metrics, forest vegetation structure and species diversity, we develop a map predicting areas of high (22% of area), medium (25%) and low (53%) condition. We recommend the further development and testing of remotely sensed range and condition indicators of conservation status for their application in important forested sites across Europe and beyond.     

Endemic wild potato (Solanum spp.) biodiversity status in Bolivia: Reasons for conservation concerns

Crop wild relatives possess important traits, therefore ex situ and in situ conservation efforts are essential to maintain sufficient options for crop improvement. Bolivia is a centre of wild relative diversity for several crops, among them potato, which is an important staple worldwide and the principal food crop in this country. Despite their relevance for plant breeding, limited knowledge exists about their in situ conservation status. We used Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and distribution modelling with the software Maxent to better understand geographic patterns of endemic wild potato diversity in Bolivia. In combination with threat layers, we assessed the conservation status of all endemic species, 21 in total. We prioritised areas for in situ conservation by using complementary reserve selection and excluded 25% of the most-threatened collection sites because costs to implement conservation measures at those locations may be too high compared to other areas. Some 70% (15 of 21 species) has a preliminary vulnerable status or worse according to IUCN red list distribution criteria. Our results show that four of these species would require special conservation attention because they were only observed in <15 locations and are highly threatened by human accessibility, fires and livestock pressure. Although highest species richness occurs in south-central Bolivia, in the departments Santa Cruz and Chuquisaca, the first priority area for in situ conservation according to our reserve selection exercise is central Bolivia, Cochabamba; this area is less threatened than the potato wild relatives’ hotspot in south-central Bolivia. Only seven of the 21 species were observed in protected areas. To improve coverage of potato wild relatives’ distribution by protected areas, we recommend starting inventories in parks and reserves with high modelled diversity. Finally, to improve ex situ conservation, we targeted areas for germplasm collection of species with <5 accessions conserved in genebanks.     

Mapping genetic diversity of cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill.): application of spatial analysis for conservation and use of plant genetic resources

There is a growing call for inventories that evaluate geographic patterns in diversity of plant genetic resources maintained on farm and in species' natural populations in order to enhance their use and conservation. Such evaluations are relevant for useful tropical and subtropical tree species, as many of these species are still undomesticated, or in incipient stages of domestication and local populations can offer yet-unknown traits of high value to further domestication. For many outcrossing species, such as most trees, inbreeding depression can be an issue, and genetic diversity is important to sustain local production. Diversity is also crucial for species to adapt to environmental changes. This paper explores the possibilities of incorporating molecular marker data into Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to allow visualization and better understanding of spatial patterns of genetic diversity as a key input to optimize conservation and use of plant genetic resources, based on a case study of cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill.), a Neotropical fruit tree species. We present spatial analyses to (1) improve the understanding of spatial distribution of genetic diversity of cherimoya natural stands and cultivated trees in Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru based on microsatellite molecular markers (SSRs); and (2) formulate optimal conservation strategies by revealing priority areas for in situ conservation, and identifying existing diversity gaps in ex situ collections. We found high levels of allelic richness, locally common alleles and expected heterozygosity in cherimoya's putative centre of origin, southern Ecuador and northern Peru, whereas levels of diversity in southern Peru and especially in Bolivia were significantly lower. The application of GIS on a large microsatellite dataset allows a more detailed prioritization of areas for in situ conservation and targeted collection across the Andean distribution range of cherimoya than previous studies could do, i.e. at province and department level in Ecuador and Peru, respectively.     

Distribution Survey and Threat Assessment of the Yellow-tailed Woolly Monkey (<Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Oreonax flavicauda;</Emphasis> Humboldt 1812), Northeastern Peru

Peruvian yellow-tailed woolly monkeys (Oreonax flavicauda) are considered Critically Endangered (IUCN Categories A4c). The International Primatological Society also considers them one of the world’s 25 most endangered primate species and therefore a conservation priority. However, there is little concerted conservation action, and the existing protected area network may be inadequate to protect this species from extinction. Until recently this species has been the focus of few studies and its distributional limits remain unknown. I present results of a range-wide survey of Oreonax flavicauda in northeastern Peru. I conducted 53 presence/absence field surveys at 43 sites between March 2007 and March 2010, with data collected for an additional 7 sites from other researchers. I chose sites where the species was previously reported or following suggestions from predictive GIS modeling. Oreonax flavicauda was present at 35 sites, all presence records were in Ficus spp.–dominated cloud forests between 1500 and 2650 m above sea level. I give the geographical limits of this species distribution throughout the north, east, and west of its range; the exact extent of its range to the south requires further investigation. Oreonax flavicauda continues to be threatened throughout its range. The major threats I identified at the survey locations were the continued conversion of forests to cattle pasture, opening of new access routes into virgin areas, and both commercial and subsistence hunting. My results suggest that existing conservation measures may be inadequate at protecting this species but that substantial opportunities do exist. Further surveys need to be made in the southern distribution of this species to determine more accurately extant habitat.     

Alzateaceae,a plant family new to Colombia

Alzateaceae is a rarely collected monotypic family (order Myrtales) whose relationships, until recently, have been obscure and controversial. Known previously from a few sites in Costa Rica, Panama, Peru, and Bolivia, it is here reported for the first time from a geographically intermediate locality—a cloud forest of the Cerro del Torrá, Departamento del Chocó, Colombia. The Chocoan population belongs to the Central American subspecies (Alzatea verticillata subsp.amplifolia S. A. Graham), rather than subsp.verticillata of Peru and Bolivia. Explanations for the present geographic distribution are considered.     

The Evolutionary History and Genetic Diversity of Kinkajous, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Potos flavus</Emphasis> (Carnivora,Procyonidae)

The genus Potos (Procyonidae) is currently recognized as a monotypic genus comprising the single species Potos flavus, the kinkajou. Kinkajous are widely distributed throughout forested habitats of tropical Central and South America, extending from eastern Brazil across central Bolivia, eastern Peru, northern Ecuador, Guianas, Suriname, Venezuela, Colombia, and then through Central America and into western Mexico. The taxonomic history of the species is complex, with seven or eight subspecies historically recognized to acknowledge the phenotypic variation among populations. In this study, the systematics and the evolutionary history of Potos flavus were investigated based on the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b, including specimens from a large range of localities, covering most of the distribution of the species, from central Middle America (Costa Rica and Panama) through South America (Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Guyana, and French Guiana). Analyses of 30 Potos flavus sequences showed 27 haplotypes that were grouped in five main clades in all phylogenetic analyses. These clades suggested a high geographic structure with specimens from (1) Costa Rica, (2) Guianas and North Brazil, (3) North Peru, (4) Ecuador and Panama, (5a) interfluves Branco-Negro rivers in the Brazilian Amazon, (5b) Eastern Atlantic Forest, (5c) Amazonian lowlands east Negro river including Bolivia, Peru, and West Brazil. Each of these clades differs from 4.5 % to 9.3 % in their genetic distance estimates, which suggests that the specific status of some of these lineages should be reconsidered. Divergence dating and biogeographic analysis suggested that crown Potos diversified in the Miocene-Pliocene in South America, and geographic barriers, such as savannas and rivers, may have played a significant role in the kinkajou diversification.     

Estimating the size of the Andean Condor population in the Apolobamba Mountains of Bolivia

ABSTRACT.   Population estimates of Andean Condors ( Vultur gryphus ) are urgently needed across their range to more accurately assess their conservation status and design appropriate conservation measures. From July to September 2005, six feeding stations in the Apolobamba mountain range of Bolivia were monitored for 3 days each and all visiting condors were digitally photographed and video-taped. Using distinctive marks, the size and shape of crests, and plumage patterns, we were able to individually recognize 23 adult male Andean Condors, or 30% of all observed condors. By extrapolation, we estimated a minimum population size for Apolobamba during the sampling period of 78 condors. Considering that the current estimate of the total population of Andean Condors in Colombia is 180 individuals, our results illustrate the importance of Apolobamba for Andean Condors and the potential importance of the Bolivian Andes for the conservation of this species. The methods we used to attract, observe, photograph, videotape, and recognize adult males may be useful for other populations of Andean Condors, as well as for other species of threatened vultures.