Nacholapithecus and its importance for understanding hominoid evolution

Nacholapithecus kerioi is a large‐sized hominoid from the Aka Aiteputh Formation (15 Ma) in Nachola, northern Kenya. 1 While eight large‐sized hominoid species dating to the late Early to early Middle Miocene (17‐14 Ma) are known in Afro‐Arabia and western Eurasia, 2 - 6 the facial and postcranial anatomy of these apes is poorly known. However, much has been learned of the craniodental and postcranial anatomy of N. kerioi over the last ten years (A list of published specimens is available online, accompanying this article), and it plays a key role in our understanding of hominoid evolution in the Early to Middle Miocene of Africa and Eurasia. Importantly, it bears on the interpretation of the hominoid Morotopithecus bishopi from 20.6 my‐old Uganda. 7 - 10 In the article, we provide information on the anatomy and adaptations of N. kerioi as well as on the site of Nachola, and discuss how our current knowledge of N. kerioi can be incorporated into scenarios of hominoid evolution.     

A conceptual framework for understanding arthropod predator and parasitoid invasions

Arthropods make up the largest group of invasive alien species (IAS) worldwide. Although invasion research has been biased towards alien plants and vertebrates, it has suggested potential mechanisms for the success of IAS and provided a theoretical framework for further investigation. Here we address key concepts from invasion biology that are essential to our understanding of the success of invasive alien arthropod predators and parasitoids including human intervention, environmental characteristics, propagule pressure, biological traits, and biological interactions. To gain a greater understanding of the factors most likely to influence the different stages of invasion (arrival, establishment, and spread) for alien arthropod predators and parasitoids, we use a comparative approach to compare and contrast the differential success of invasions by alien phytophagous and carnivorous arthropods. Insights gained from this comparison suggest that future research will require a multitrophic approach in order to enhance our understanding of invasions at higher trophic levels.     

Trunk segment numbers and sequential segmentation in myriapods

Sequential segmentation from a posterior "proliferative zone" is considered to be the primitive mechanism of segmentation in arthropods. Several studies of embryonic and post-embryonic development and gene expression suggest that this occurs in all major arthropod taxa. Sequential segmentation is often associated with the idea of posterior production of body units that accumulate along the main body axis. However, the precise mechanism of sequential segmentation has not been identified yet, and, while searching for the genetic circuitry able to generate a first periodic pattern in the embryo, we can at least outline the distinctive role in segmentation of a proliferative zone. A perusal of myriapod segmentation patterns suggests that these patterns result from multi-layered developmental processes, where gene expression and epigenetic mechanisms interact in a nonstrictly hierarchical way. The posterior zone is possibly a zone of periodic signal production, but, in general, the resulting segmental pattern is not completely attributable to the activity of the signal generator. In this sense, a posterior proliferative zone would be more a "segmental organizer" than a "segment generator."     

Conservation and variation in Ubx expression among chelicerates

SUMMARY Chelicerates are an ancient arthropod group with a distinct body plan composed of an anterior (prosoma) and a posterior portion (opisthosoma). The expression of the Hox gene Ultrabithorax (Ubx) has been examined in a single representative of the chelicerates, the spider Cupiennius salei. In spiders, Ubx expression starts in the second opisthosomal segment (O2). Because the first opisthosomal segment (O1) in spiders is greatly reduced relative to other chelicerates, we hypothesized that the observed Ubx expression pattern might be secondarily modified. Shifts in the anterior boundary of the expression of Ubx have been correlated with functional shifts in morphology within malacostracan crustaceans. Thus, the boundary of Ubx expression between chelicerates with different morphologies in their anterior opisthosoma could also be variable. To test this prediction, we examined the expression patterns of Ubx and abdominal‐A (collectively referred to as UbdA) in two basal chelicerate lineages, scorpions and xiphosurans (horseshoe crabs), which exhibit variation in the morphology of their anterior opisthosoma. In the scorpion Paruroctonus mesaensis, the anterior border of early expression of UbdA is in a few cells in the medial, posterior region of the O2 segment, with a predominant expression in O3 and posterior. Expression later spreads to encompass the whole O2 segment and a ventral, posterior portion of the O1 segment. In the xiphosuran Limulus polyphemus, early expression of UbdA has an anterior boundary in the segment. Later in development, the anterior boundary moves forward one segment to the chilarial (O1) segment. Thus, the earliest expression boundary of UbdA lies within the second opisthosomal segment in all the chelicerates examined. These results suggest that rather than being derived, the spider UbdA expression in O2 likely reflects the ancestral expression boundary. Changes in the morphology of the first opisthosomal segment are either not associated with changes in UbdA expression or correlate with late developmental changes in UbdA expression.     

Neurogenesis in the chilopod <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lithobius forficatus</Emphasis> suggests more similarities to chelicerates than to insects

In a recent comparative study on neurogenesis in the diplopod Glomeris marginata we have shown that the millipede and the spider share several features that cannot be found in homologous form in insects and crustaceans. The most distinctive difference is that groups of neural precursors are singled out from the neuroectoderm of the spider and the diplopod, rather than individual cells (i.e. neuroblasts) as in insects or crustacean. This observation constitutes the first morphological indication for a close myriapod/chelicerate relationship that has otherwise only been suggested by molecular phylogenetic analysis. To see whether the pattern of neurogenesis described for the diplopod is representative for myriapods, we analysed neurogenesis in the basal chilopod Lithobius forficatus. We show here that groups of cells invaginate from the chilopod neuroectoderm at strikingly similar positions as the invaginating cell groups of the diplopod and the spider. Furthermore, the expression patterns of the proneural and neurogenic genes reveal more similarities to the chelicerate and the diplopod than to insects. Thus, chelicerates and myriapods share the developmental mechanism for neurogenesis, either because they are true sister groups, or because this reflects the ancestral state of neurogenesis in arthropods.Edited by P. Simpson     

Multi-scale relationships between numbers and size in the evolution of arthropod body features

Size-related changes of form in animals with periodically patterned body axes and post-embryonic growth discontinuously obtained throughout a series of moulting episodes cannot be accounted for by allometry alone. We address here the relationships between body size and number and size of appropriately selected structural units (e.g., segments), which may more or less closely approximate independent developmental units, or unitary targets of selection, or both. Distinguishing between units fundamentally involving one cell only or a small and fixed number of cells (e.g., the ommatidia in a compound eye), and units made of an indeterminate number of cells (e.g., trunk segments), we analyze and discuss a selection of body features of either kind, both in ontogeny and in phylogeny, through a review of current literature and meta-analyses of published and unpublished data. While size/number relationships are too diverse to allow easy generalizations, they provide conspicuous examples of the complex interplay of selective forces and developmental constraints that characterizes the evolution of arthropod body patterning.     

The importance of samples and isolates for species–area relationships

Species–area relationships (SARs) are a key tool for understanding patterns of species diversity. A framework for the interpretation of SARs and their prediction under different landscape configurations remains elusive, however. This article addresses one of these configurations: how species' minimum-area requirements affect the shape of island or other isolate Species–area curves. We distinguish between two classes of SARs: sample-area curves, compiled entirely within larger contiguous areas, and isolate curves, compiled between isolated areas. We develop this conceptual and graphic model in order to illuminate landscape-scale diversity patterns, to discuss how various landscape and species characteristics affect outcomes, and to investigate the dynamics of local extinction under conditions of habitat fragmentation. Minimum-area effects on actual islands and other isolates predictably cause Species–area curves either to be sigmoid in arithmetic space or to be lowered for smaller areas. In order to illustrate the inherent shape of isolate curves, this study fits convex and sigmoid regression models to empirical isolate (island) data sets that cover the small scales expected to include inflection points.     

Towards harmonious conservation relationships: A framework for understanding protected area staff-local community relationships in developing countries

This paper conceptualises a framework for assessing protected area (PA)–community relationships and is premised on the view that positive PA–community relationships enhance conservation. A meta-synthesis of existing academic literature with a qualitative orientation was used to review the PA staff-community relationships, and data were analysed using an inductive qualitative approach. From a review of 105 published documents focusing on wildlife conservation, community involvement and PA–community relationships, it emerged that relationships are mostly influenced by attitudes. With the case of PA–community relationships, the question that arises is ‘whose attitude’? The paper proposes that both PA staff attitudes and community attitudes play an important role in shaping these relationships. Based on these findings, we propose a PA–community relationship framework that illuminates the human–wildlife interface as critical space in shaping conservation attitudes. In particular, four major factors affecting PA staff-community relationships were identified: (i) history of creation of the PAs focusing on forced relocation, and the fences and fines approach; (ii) benefits and costs associated with living closer to PAs; (iii) socio-demographic factors in which the influences of sex, age, level of education, number of years stayed in the village, experience accrued from working in PAs, household size, number of livestock, sources of income, and level of income; and (iv) community involvement in conservation-related developmental projects. We conclude that enhanced PA–community relationships promote wildlife conservation through participatory approaches and collaboration between PA staff and communities. We recommend for continued assessment and monitoring of PA staff and community relationships in order to allow for sustainable conservation especially in developing countries.     

Peptide-receptor protein relationships: importance in estradiol feedback

Aspartate, glutamate, serine and glycine all permeate the inner membrane of mitochondria isolated from both etiolated and green plant tissues. No significant difference was found in the transport characteristics shown by mitochondria from either tissue. Influx of each amino acid appears diffusional because substrate saturation was not observed and there was no indication of specific inhibition or a requirement for a compensatory or counter ion for uptake. In contrast, uptake of the keto acid pyruvate did appear saturable. Inhibition by α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamate, mersalyl and FCCP, but not valinomycin, suggests a carrier and a ΔpH mediate pyruvate transport into the matrix.     

Progress in understanding structure-function relationships in respiratory chain complex II

Complex II (succinate:quinone oxidoreductase) of aerobic respiratory chains oxidizes succinate to fumarate and passes the electrons directly into the quinone pool. It serves as the only direct link between activity in the citric acid cycle and electron transport in the membrane. Finer details of these reactions and interactions are but poorly understood. However, complex II has extremely similar structural and catalytic properties to quinol:fumarate oxidoreductases of anaerobic organisms, for which X-ray structures have recently become available. These offer new insights into structure-function relationships of this class of flavoenzymes, including evidence favoring protein movement during catalysis.     

节肢动物群落稳定性测度的灰色模型及其应用

证明了累加生成可增大两单调递增序列的协方差,意味着累加生成有可能提高两正相关序列的线性相关性,使之达到线性拟合的要求。在一个节肢动物群落中总个体数与种类数、天敌总个体数与害虫总个体数具有灰正相关关系。以各样本中总个体数m与种类数S及天敌总个体数mn与害虫总个体数mp为变量,利用累加生成和线性回归的方法建立节肢动物群落稳定性测度灰色模型。通过模型求出比值S/m和mn/mp作为测度群落稳定性的指标,其值愈大表明群落稳定性愈好。将该模型应用于福州、安溪、武夷山、福安等四地茶园节肢动物群落稳定性的测度,对所得结果应用灰色聚类法按“好”、“中”、“差”3类对4地茶园节肢动物群落稳定性状况进行灰色聚类评估。评估结果为:福州、安溪茶园为“好”,武夷山茶园为“中”,福安茶园为“差”。这一结果与实际基本相符,表明建立的灰色模型是可行的,并验证了生物多样性可导致群落稳定性这一假说。     

Phylogenetic comparison of serotonin-immunoreactive neurons in representatives of the Chilopoda, Diplopoda, and Chelicerata: implications for arthropod relationships

The phylogenetic relationships within the Arthropoda have been discussed controversially for more than a century. Comparative studies on structure and development of the nervous system have contributed important arguments to this discussion. Arthropods have individually identifiable neurons that can be used as characters in phylogenetic studies. In the present report, the arrangement of serotonin-immunoreactive neurons in the ventral nerve cord was examined in seven representatives of the Chelicerata, Chilopoda, and Diplopoda. The goal of this analysis was to determine whether number, arrangement, and axonal morphology of the serotonergic neurons in these groups are similar to the pattern found in representatives of the Hexapoda and Crustacea, as explored in a previous study. The results indicate that the pattern in the seven species examined here does not correspond to that present in the Hexapoda and Crustacea. In particular, the pattern in Chilopoda and Diplopoda is clearly different from that of the Hexapoda. The hexapodan pattern most closely resembles that of the Crustacea. These findings are discussed with regard to recent reports on the mechanisms of neurogenesis in these taxa. Furthermore, the proposed ground patterns of the various groups are reconstructed and the characters are plotted on two competing hypotheses of arthropod phylogeny, the traditional Tracheata hypothesis and an alternative hypothesis derived from molecular and recent morphological data, the Tetraconata concept. The data discussed in this article moderately support the Tetraconata hypothesis.