In vitro methylation of specific regions of the cloned Moloney sarcoma virus genome inhibits its transforming activity.

The transforming activity of cloned Moloney sarcoma virus (MSV) proviral DNA was inhibited by in vitro methylation of the DNA at cytosine residues, using HpaII and HhaI methylases before transfection into NIH 3T3 cells. The inhibition of transforming activity due to HpaII methylation was reversed by treatment of the transfected cells with 5-azacytidine, a specific inhibitor of methylation. Analysis of the genomic DNA from the transformed cells which resulted from the transfection of methylated MSV DNA revealed that the integrated MSV proviral DNA was sensitive to HpaII digestion in all cell lines examined, suggesting that loss of methyl groups was necessary for transformation. When cells were infected with Moloney murine leukemia virus at various times after transfection with methylated MSV DNA, the amount of transforming virus produced indicated that the loss of methyl groups occurred within 24 h. Methylation of MSV DNA at HhaI sites was as inhibitory to transforming activity as methylation at HpaII sites. In addition, methylation at both HpaII and HhaI sites did not further reduce the transforming activity of the DNA. These results suggested that; whereas methylation of specific sites on the provirus may not be essential for inhibiting the transforming activity of MSV DNA, methylation of specific regions may be necessary. Thus, by cotransfection of plasmids containing only specific regions of the MSV provirus, it was determined that methylation of the v-mos gene was more inhibitory to transformation than methylation of the viral long terminal repeat.     

De novo methylation as major event in the inactivation of transfected herpesvirus thymidine kinase genes in human cells

Spontaneous inactivation of integrated thymidine kinase genes was studied in three human cell lines, one with multiple copies and two with a single copy of a transfected shuttle plasmid containing two selectable genes: the HSV tk gene and the Eco gpt gene. Selection for gpt expression prevented the isolation of TK- mutants which are the result of plasmid loss. Under these conditions TK- clones were isolated with a frequency of 5.10(-6) both with the cell line containing 5 or 6 copies of the tk gene and with one of the two cell lines containing one copy of this gene. This inactivity of the tk gene was associated with de novo methylation as the number of HAT-resistant (TK+) clones strongly increased after growth of the TK- derivatives in the presence of the demethylating agent, 5-azacytidine. Digestion with methylation-sensitive restriction enzymes revealed two different patterns of DNA methylation in the genomic DNA of TK- variants. In the TK- derivatives of the cell line containing multiple copies of the tk gene many HpaII restriction sites in the gene copies were insensitive to digestion. These HpaII sites were, however, not methylated in TK- variants of the cell line containing one copy of the plasmid, and methylated CpGs could be detected only with EcoRI which recognizes the cGAATTCg sequence in the tk promoter region. With the other of the two single-copy TK+ cell lines no TK- mutants were obtained, suggesting that the position of a gene in the genome is an important factor in determining the frequency and the extent of de novo methylation. Additionally, we observed that remethylation is an even more efficient process of gene inactivation as TK+ clones reactivated with 5-azacytidine can become TK- again at a 100-fold higher rate than the original TK+ cell line.     

Developmental regulation of cytosine methylation in the nuclear ribosomal RNA genes of Pisum sativum

Prominent features of the cytosine methylation pattern of the Pisum sativum nuclear ribosomal RNA genes have been defined. Cytosine methylation within the C-C-G-G sequence was studied using the restriction enzymes HpaII and MspI and gel blot hybridizations of the restriction digests. The extent to which particular features of the methylation pattern change during seedling development has also been determined. Total cellular DNA, purified from defined sections of pea seedlings grown under different lighting conditions, was analyzed with DNA hybridization probes derived from different portions of a cloned member of the nuclear rRNA gene family. By use of an indirect end-labeling technique, a map of 23 cleavable HpaII and/or MspI sites in genomic rDNA was constructed. The map covers about 90% of the rDNA repeat including the entire non-transcribed spacer region and most of the rRNA coding sequences. One notable feature of the map is that the most prominent HpaII site, located about 800 base-pairs upstream from the 5' end of the mature 18 S rRNA, is cleaved only in one of the two most abundant rDNA length variants (the short variant). With a gel blot assay specific for cleavage at this site, we estimated the HpaII sensitivity of DNA preparations from several stages of pea seedling development. We find that, while methylation is generally low in young seedlings, DNA obtained from the apical buds of pea seedlings is highly methylated. Further, the methylation level of rDNA within the pea bud decreases as the buds are allowed to develop under continuous white light. Our data, taken together with published studies on pea seedling development, indicate that cytosine methylation levels may be related to the regulated expression of the nuclear rRNA genes in pea.     

In vitro methylation of bovine papillomavirus alters its ability to transform mouse cells.

Bovine papillomavirus (BPV) was methylated in vitro at either the 29 HpaII sites, the 27 HhaI sites, or both. Methylation of the HpaII sites reduced transformation by the virus two- to sixfold, while methylation at HhaI sites increased transformation two- to fourfold. DNA methylated at both HpaII and HhaI sites did not differ detectably from unmethylated DNA in its efficiency of transformation. These results indicate that specific methylation sites, rather than the absolute level of methylated cytosine residues, are important in determining the effects on transformation and that the negative effects of methylation at some sites can be compensated for by methylation at other sites. BPV molecules in cells transformed by methylated BPV DNA contained little or no methylation, indicating that the pattern of methylation was not faithfully retained in these extrachromosomally replicating molecules. Methylation at the HpaII sites (but not the HhaI sites) in the cloned BPV plasmid or in pBR322 also inhibited transformation of the plasmids into Escherichia coli HB101 cells.     

Phenotypic switching in cells transformed with the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase gene

Biochemical transformation of Ltk- cells with the herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase (tk) gene resulted in numerous TK+ colonies that survived selection in hypoxanthine-aminopterin-thymidine medium. Many of these TK+ cell lines switched phenotypes and reverted to the TK- state. In this report, we describe the biological and biochemical characteristics of three TK- revertant lines. One (K1B5) transiently expressed TK in the presence of bromodeoxyuridine, which selects for the TK- phenotype. Another TK- sibling (K1B6n) expressed TK only after removal from bromodeoxyuridine-containing medium. The last variant (K1B6me) lost the ability to switch to the TK+ phenotype, although it maintained the herpes simplex virus sequences coding for TK. Loss of the ability of K1B6me cells to express TK was correlated with extensive methylation of the sequence recognized by the restriction endonuclease HpaII (pCpCpGpG). After these cells were treated with 5-azacytidine, they regained the ability to clone in hypoxanthine-aminopterin-thymidine medium and reexpressed virus tk mRNA and enzyme. In addition, the HpaII sites that were previously shown to be refractile to enzyme digestion were converted to a sensitive state, demonstrating that they were no longer methylated.     

In vitro methylation of the 5'-flanking regions of the mouse beta-globin gene

The enzymatic methylation of the 5'-flanking region of the mouse beta-globin (major) gene containing putative regulatory regions has been investigated. In vitro methylation of this 368-base pair regulatory DNA by a DNA methyltransferase obtained from mouse erythroleukemia cells yields an asymmetric methylation pattern. Of the 10 available CG pairs, only 5-6 are modified, leading to one hemimethylated site and two apparently fully methylated sites. Only CG pairs which are localized in a 29-base pair cluster are methylated. The data suggest that a CG cluster approximately 100 base pairs upstream from the CAP site may be the in vivo site of methylation in the 5'-regulator region of the mouse beta-globin gene.     

DNA methylation: organ specific variations in the methylation pattern within and around ovalbumin and other chicken genes.

The restriction enzymes HhaI and HpaII, whose activity is inhibited by cytosine methylation within their recognition sites, have been utilised as probes to study methylation in the vicinity of the ovalbumin gene in DNA from various chicken tissues. This was complemented by a preliminary study of methylation in the regions of chicken ovotransferrin (conalbumin), ovomucoid and beta-globin genes. From our data we conclude that HaI or HpaII sites can be divided in 3 classes according to their pattern of methylation in different tissues. In the first class of sites (mV class) the extent of methylation varies in different tissues. The patterns obtained show that methylation at the sites located within and around the 3 genes which code for egg white proteins is in general lowest in oviduct of laying hen, where these genes are expressed. However some sites are not methylated (m- class) and others are 95 to 100% resistant (m+ class) to digestion by HhaI or HpaII in the DNAs of all the tissues which were tested. Our study has also revealed a remarkable number of allelic variants for the presence of HhaI or HpaII sites in the region of the ovalbumin gene.     

DNA methylation and the regulation of aldolase B gene expression

DNA methylation was studied as a potential factor for the regulation of tissue-specific and developmentally specific expression of the rat aldolase B gene. We examined cytosine methylation in the HpaII and HhaI recognition sequences in the aldolase B gene in aldolase expressing and nonexpressing tissues and cells. Out of the 15 methyl-sensitive restriction sites examined, the sites in the 3'-half and 3'-flanking regions were found to be heavily methylated in all the tissues or cells, regardless of the level of aldolase B gene expression. However, the methylation pattern in the region immediately upstream and in the 5'-half of the gene exhibited tissue-specificity: the site located about 0.13 kb upstream of the cap site (just next to the CCAAT box), and the sites in the first intron (intron 1) were heavily methylated in nonexpressing cells and tissues (ascites hepatoma AH130 and brain), whereas those in an expressing tissue (liver) were considerably less methylated. These results suggest that cytosine methylation at the specific sites in the 5'-flanking and 5'-half regions of the gene is associated with repression of the gene activity. However, the gene is still substantially methylated in the fetal liver on day 16 of gestation, when it is in a committed state for rapid activation in the period immediately afterwards (Numazaki et al. (1984) Eur. J. Biochem. 152, 165-170). This suggests that demethylation of the methylated cytosine residues in the specific gene region is not necessarily required before activation of the gene during development, but it may occur along with or after the activation.     

Active X chromosome DNA is unmethylated at eight CCGG sites clustered in a guanine-plus-cytosine-rich island at the 5'' end of the gene for phosphoglycerate kinase.

The 5' control region and first exon for human X-chromosome-linked phosphoglycerate kinase is contained in a G + C-rich island. We measured methylation at all HpaII sites in this 5' region of leukocyte DNA. By use of a blotting procedure that allows analysis of small DNA fragments, we found that the HpaII sites are entirely methylated when from an inactive X chromosome and entirely unmethylated when from an active one. In contrast, methylation of HpaII sites in more downstream regions of the gene is essentially the same in active and inactive X chromosomes.     

Variable methylation of the ribosomal RNA genes of the rat.

Both the pattern and level of rRNA gene methylation vary in the rat. This variation reflects stages in the maturation process and perhaps the level of gene expression in different tissues. We studied methylation at a common site, the inner cytosine of the sequence CCGG, by hybridizing 32P-rRNA to DNA digests obtained with endonuclease Msp I (which cleaves CCGG and CMCGG) and its isochizomer, HpaII (which cleaves only CCGG). In the liver, the changing pattern of rRNA gene methylation reflected the late stages of development: the rRNA genes were mostly unmethylated at 14 days gestation; by 18 days gestation, about 30% of them were methylated, and this level persisted into adulthood. In 18-day DNA, the methylation was uniform, but in adult DNA, the methylation pattern was discontinuous, because otherwise methylated genes contained a demethylated region. Similar developmental changes were observed in brain DNA. In a tissue culture cell line, the change from the continuous to the discontinuous pattern of the methylation could be induced by transformation with Kirsten sarcoma virus. And, in adult tissues, the lowest level of rRNA gene methylation was found in rapidly growing jejunal epithelium, and the highest level, in non-growing spermatozoa.     

The somatic replication of DNA methylation

We have tested the hypothesis that DNA methylation patterns are replicated in the somatic cells of vertebrates. Using M-Hpa II, the modification enzyme from Haemophilus parainfluenzae which methylates the internal cytosine residues in the sequence 5'CCGG 3' GGCC, we methylated bacteriophage phi X174 RF DNA and the cloned chicken thymidine kinase (tk) gene in vitro and then introduced these DNAs and unmethylated controls into tk- cultured mouse cells by DNA-mediated transformation. Twenty-five cell generations later, the state of methylation of transferred DNA was examined by restriction endonuclease analysis and blot hybridization. We conclude that methylation at Hpa II sites is replicated by these cultured cells but not with 100% fidelity. We have also noted that methylation of the cloned chicken tk gene decreases its apparent transformation efficiency relative to unmethylated molecules.     

Activity of the simian virus 40 early promoter-enhancer in herpes simplex virus type 1 vectors is dependent on its position, the infected cell type, and the presence of Vmw175.

We have studied some of the parameters governing the expression of a foreign promoter-reporter gene construct incorporated into herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1. These include the genetic background of the parental virus, the site of transgene insertion within the HSV genome, and the infected cell type. The genetic background of the vector constructs denoted delta 3 was an HSV type 1 mutant deleted for nearly the entire coding portion of Vmw175 (ICP4), the product of the essential immediate-early gene IE3. For vectors denoted +, the IE3 deletion had been repaired by marker rescue. We used as a reporter gene the bacterial chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) gene, driven by the simian virus 40 (SV40) early promoter and enhancer region. The SV40-cat hybrid gene was inserted either into the HSV thymidine kinase (TK) locus to create the vectors TKScat delta 3 and TKScat+ or into an intergenic site within the BamHI z fragment of the short unique portion of the viral genome to create the vectors GScat delta 3 and GScat+. In Vero and BHK cells infected with TKScat delta 3, CAT activity was first detected at 10 h postinfection and continued to accumulate until 36 h postinfection. In cells of primate origin infected with the replication-competent vector TKScat+, or in primate cells which complement the IE3 deficiency and which were infected with TKScat delta 3, CAT activity was significantly lower than in cells of rodent origin. However, levels of CAT were increased in the presence of cycloheximide, suggesting that the low production of CAT in primate cells was due to repression of SV40-cat hybrid gene expression. In contrast with results with TKScat delta 3 and TKScat+, CAT activity was not detectable in any of the tested cell types infected with GScat delta 3 or GScat+ except under conditions of cycloheximide reversal. These results show that while HSV gene products expressed in the presence of Vmw175 inhibited SV40-cat expression in the tk locus in a cell-type-specific manner, HSV gene products expressed in the presence or absence of Vmw175 inhibited SV40-cat expression in the BamHI z locus independently of cell type.     

Preparation of a "functional library" of African green monkey DNA fragments which substitute for the processing/polyadenylation signal in the herpes simplex virus type 1 thymidine kinase gene.

Fragments of African green monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops) DNA (3.5 to 18.0 kilobases) were inserted downstream from the thymidine kinase (TK, tk) coding region in pTK206/SV010, a gene construct which lacks both copies of the hexanucleotide 5'-AATAAA-3' and contains a simian virus 40 origin of replication, allowing it to replicate in Cos-1 cells. No polyadenylated tk mRNA was detected in Cos-1 cells transfected by pTK206/SV010. The ability of simian DNA fragments to restore tk gene expression was examined by measuring the incorporation of [125I]iododeoxycytidine into DNA in Cos-1 cells transfected by pTK206/SV010 insertion derivatives. tk gene expression was restored by the insertion in 56 of the 67 plasmids analyzed, and the level of expression equaled or exceeded that obtained with the wild-type tk gene in 30 of these. In all plasmids examined that showed restoration of tk gene expression, polyadenylated tk mRNA of discrete size was detected. The sizes of these tk mRNAs were consistent with the existence of processing and polyadenylation signals within the inserted DNA fragments. The frequency with which inserted fragments restored tk gene expression suggests that the minimal signal for processing and polyadenylation is a hexanucleotide (AAUAAA or a similar sequence). LTK- cells were biochemically transformed to TK+ with representative insertion constructs. pTK206/SV010 transformed LTK- cells at a very low frequency; the frequency of transformation with insertion derivatives was 40 to 12,000 times higher.     

The pattern of DNA methylation in the delta-crystallin genes in transdifferentiating neural retina cultures

Terminally differentiated lens fibre cells are formed in the vertebrate lens throughout life. Lens fibre cells may also be obtained by an in vitro process termed transdifferentiation, from certain tissues of different developmental origin from lens, such as embryo neural retina. delta-Crystallin is the major protein in the chick embryo lens fibre cells, and also in transdifferentiated lens cells obtained from cultured embryonic neural retina. Lens crystallin proteins and mRNA are present at low levels in the intact embryonic neural retina but are no longer detectable in the early stages of neural retina cell culture. However, levels rise steeply in the later stages and crystallins become the major products in terminally transdifferentiating neural retina cultures. We have used this system to test the hypothesis that the patterns of DNA methylation in particular genes are correlated with gene expression. A number of developmentally regulated genes have been found to be undermethylated in tissues where they are expressed, and methylated in tissues where they are not. However this correspondence does not always hold true. Eight-day-old embryonic neural retina was cultured for the period of time during which crystallin gene expression increases 100-fold. DNA methylation in the delta-crystallin gene region was analysed at several stages of cell culture by using the restriction endonucleases HpaII and MspI which cleave at the sequence CCGG. The former enzyme cannot cleave internally methylated cytosine (CmCGG) while the latter cannot cleave externally methylated cytosine (mCCGG). We detect no change in the methylation of CCGG sites within the delta-crystallin gene regions during transdifferentiation. Since dramatic changes in delta-crystallin gene expression occur during this process we conclude that large scale alterations in the pattern of DNA methylation are not a necessary accompaniment to changes in gene activity.     

Cytosine methylation in the EcoRI site of active and inactive herpesvirus thymidine kinase promoters

The herpesvirus thymidine kinase (tk) gene integrated in the human cell line, 2.1-a, can be inactivated by limited de novo methylation. All these TK- clones show partial EcoRI digestion of the recognition site (cGAATTCg) in the tk promoter in contrast to complete digestion of this site in the original cell line. Studies on well-defined substrates prepared in vitro showed that methylation of one cytosine in the EcoRI recognition sequence resulted in partial and methylation of both cytosines in severe inhibition of digestion by EcoRI. This characteristic was used to determine whether no, one or both cytosines in the EcoRI site of the tk promoter were methylated in various TK- clones derived from 2.1-a and in TK+ clones re-expressing the gene after 5-azacytidine treatment. A high correlation was found between inactivity of the tk gene and methylation of only one of the two cytosines in the EcoRI recognition site. The results also show that the tk promoter can be active despite the presence of a methylated cytosine.