Insights into the Management of Large Carnivores for Profitable Wildlife-Based Land Uses in African Savannas

Large African predators, especially lions (Panthera leo) and leopards (Panthera pardus), are financially valuable for ecotourism and trophy hunting operations on land also utilized for the production of other wildlife species for the same purpose. Predation of ungulates used for trophy hunting can create conflict with landholders and trade off thus exists between the value of lions and leopards and their impact on ungulate populations. Therefore productionist and conservation trade-offs are complexly graded and difficult to resolve. We investigated this with a risk-benefit analysis on a large private wildlife production area in Zimbabwe. Our model showed that lions result in substantial financial costs through predation on wild ungulates that may not be offset by profits from hunting them, whereas the returns from trophy hunting of leopards are projected to exceed the costs due to leopard predation. In the absence of additional income derived from photo-tourism the number of lions may need to be managed to minimize their impact. Lions drive important ecological processes, but there is a need to balance ecological and financial imperatives on wildlife ranches, community wildlife lands and other categories of multiple use land used for wildlife production. This will ensure the competitiveness of wildlife based land uses relative to alternatives. Our findings may thus be limited to conservancies, community land-use areas and commercial game ranches, which are expansive in Africa, and should not necessarily applied to areas where biodiversity conservation is the primary objective, even if hunting is allowed there.     

The role of game management in wildlife populations: uncertainty analysis of expert knowledge

Uncertainties about future states of wildlife populations make it difficult to pre-adapt to possible threats and ensure sustainability of resources and harvesting over the long term. This uncertainty is partly due to the unknown impact and future states of many factors that explain population sizes and variation. In this paper, the effect of local game management activities on the uncertainty of future population sizes of groups of Finnish wildlife species (ungulates, forest grouse, large predators, small predators and mountain hare) was analysed using expert knowledge and the Bayesian belief networks (BBNs) modelling techniques. As a result, the current knowledge and agreement of the relationships between wildlife population sizes and the game management activities explaining their variation as well as trends are evaluated. Information given to hunters and the number of hunters were seen as the most effective factors for the management of game populations. However, there were great uncertainties in the expectations regarding future trends in the management activities, especially in feeding, and there was disagreement in the direction of the trend in the length of the hunting season. The trends in the size of forest grouse populations were viewed as the most uncertain trend among species groups. At the same time, forest grouse were seen as the most regulated species group by local game management. Among interest variables, experts were very uncertain and they disagreed about the direction of the trend in the recreational value of hunting.     

Do non-ruminant wildlife pose a risk of paratuberculosis to domestic livestock and vice versa in Scotland?

Paratuberculosis (Johne's disease) was long considered only a disease of ruminants. Recently non-ruminant wildlife species have been shown to harbor Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, the causative organism of paratuberculosis. We review the known non-ruminant wildlife host range of M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis and consider their role in the epidemiology of paratuberculosis in domestic ruminant livestock. Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis has been isolated from lagomorph, canid, mustelid, corvid, and murid species. In agricultural environments domestic ruminants may contact wildlife and/or their excreta when grazing or feeding on farm-stored feed contaminated with wildlife feces, opening up the possibility of inter-species transmission. Of the wildlife species known to harbor M. avium subsp. paratuberculosis in Scotland, the rabbit is likely to pose the greatest risk to grazing livestock. Paratuberculosis in domestic ruminants is a notoriously difficult disease to control; the participation of non-ruminant wildlife in the epidemiology of the disease may partially account for this difficulty.     

Opportunistic use of camera traps to assess habitat-specific mammal and bird diversity in northcentral Namibia

In northcentral Namibia, Waterberg Plateau Park (WPP) is a protected area that acts as a refuge for rare and endangered species, while the farmlands surrounding the Park are managed for livestock production, but support populations of wildlife for game farming, trophy hunting, and conservation. During June–October 2006, camera-traps were set within and surrounding WPP to assess leopard (Panthera pardus) density (n = 19 camera stations and 946 camera-trap-nights). Fortuitously, photographic results (2,265 photos of identifiable mammal (n = 37) and bird (n = 25) species) allowed us to assess aspects of species diversity and differences among the Park, the farmland areas along the Waterberg Plateau escarpment, and the flatlands surrounding the escarpment. Species composition among the three areas was markedly different, and made sense with respect to differences in habitat and management features. Camera-trapping efforts, although intended for a narrow purpose, may also provide a rather robust record of differences in mammal and bird diversity in adjacent habitats and can be incorporated into long-term monitoring programs.     

Valuation of wildlife populations above survival

Biodiversity valuation studies often address the willingness to pay (WTP) for species survival. Many policy initiatives, however, target more generally the population levels of wildlife. This study investigated the empirical question of WTP for enhancing species populations also beyond the survival level. Respondents’ WTP for increases in population levels of endangered species as well as of general wildlife in three habitats were evaluated in a choice experiment, by trading off against income tax and restrictions in recreational access. Any person may have several motives for deriving value from enhanced wildlife populations, and variation in values were analysed in a Latent Class model. We document considerable discrete variations in WTP and respondents fall into several distinct groups. The first group express a significant WTP for saving endangered species only and has no positive WTP for higher population levels, indicating that existence values dominate their WTP. The second group put emphasis on wildlife, but with equal weight attached to moderate and high increases in population for ‘Endangered’ as well as ‘General’ wildlife. Thus, they appear insensitive to scope. The pattern suggests that WTP may be affected by warm glow or deontological motivations. The third group reveal significant WTP, but for at least one of the wildlife attributes they prefer moderate increases over high. This could be due to moral motivations or reflect provision cost concerns. Our findings point to the caution needed when using results from studies focusing on species survival in valuing broader initiatives.     

Has the Time Come for Big Science in Wildlife Health?

The consequences of wildlife emerging diseases are global and profound with increased burden on the public health system, negative impacts on the global economy, declines and extinctions of wildlife species, and subsequent loss of ecological integrity. Examples of health threats to wildlife include Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, which causes a cutaneous fungal infection of amphibians and is linked to declines of amphibians globally; and the recently discovered Pseudogymnoascus (Geomyces) destructans, the etiologic agent of white nose syndrome which has caused precipitous declines of North American bat species. Of particular concern are the novel pathogens that have emerged as they are particularly devastating and challenging to manage. A big science approach to wildlife health research is needed if we are to make significant and enduring progress in managing these diseases. The advent of new analytical models and bench assays will provide us with the mathematical and molecular tools to identify and anticipate threats to wildlife, and understand the ecology and epidemiology of these diseases. Specifically, new molecular diagnostic techniques have opened up avenues for pathogen discovery, and the application of spatially referenced databases allows for risk assessments that can assist in targeting surveillance. Long-term, systematic collection of data for wildlife health and integration with other datasets is also essential. Multidisciplinary research programs should be expanded to increase our understanding of the drivers of emerging diseases and allow for the development of better disease prevention and management tools, such as vaccines. Finally, we need to create a National Fish and Wildlife Health Network that provides the operational framework (governance, policies, procedures, etc.) by which entities with a stake in wildlife health cooperate and collaborate to achieve optimal outcomes for human, animal, and ecosystem health.     

Forecasting the Effects of Fertility Control on Overabundant Ungulates: White-Tailed Deer in the National Capital Region

Overabundant populations of ungulates have caused environmental degradation and loss of biological diversity in ecosystems throughout the world. Culling or regulated harvest is often used to control overabundant species. These methods are difficult to implement in national parks, other types of conservation reserves, or in residential areas where public hunting may be forbidden by policy. As a result, fertility control has been recommended as a non-lethal alternative for regulating ungulate populations. We evaluate this alternative using white-tailed deer in national parks in the vicinity of Washington, D.C., USA as a model system. Managers seek to reduce densities of white-tailed deer from the current average (50 deer per km²) to decrease harm to native plant communities caused by deer. We present a Bayesian hierarchical model using 13 years of population estimates from 8 national parks in the National Capital Region Network. We offer a novel way to evaluate management actions relative to goals using short term forecasts. Our approach confirms past analyses that fertility control is incapable of rapidly reducing deer abundance. Fertility control can be combined with culling to maintain a population below carrying capacity with a high probability of success. This gives managers confronted with problematic overabundance a framework for implementing management actions with a realistic assessment of uncertainty.     

Assessing trophy hunting in South Africa by comparing hunting and exporting databases

Trophy hunting constitutes a major part of the global wildlife tourism industry and is connected through the export of kills to international wildlife trade. Inconsistencies between kills and exports can contribute to identifying illegal trophy hunting that constitutes a major threat to biodiversity conservation. This paper quantitatively analyses to what extent the data of trophy hunting kills and of trophy exports are consistent using the example of South Africa. Data was extracted from two different sources for the year 2018. These sources were trade data reported under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and its Trade Database on the export of trophy items from South Africa, which is compared with the South African Professional Hunting statistics (SAPHs) containing trophy kills information for each species and the country of origin of the hunter. The data of trophy hunting kills and data of trophy hunting export was found to differ to varying degrees across the countries contributing to trophy hunting and CITES-listed trophy-hunted species. We found that both databases report hunting of the same 28 threatened taxa. On the other hand, the same data reports that hunters of 64 nationalities participated in a total of 4,726 trophy kills, while only 3,131 hunting trophy items were exported from South Africa, to 37 countries as final destinations. Among the possible reasons for the discrepancies found, we suggest that the time required to taxidermize trophy specimens may delay the items being addressed to their final destination, in addition to the dual citizenship of some hunters that should also have some influence on our results, as well as the important commercial destination of Brussels Airport. The USA show the highest absolute number of trophy hunters, followed by Spain, but Denmark is the highest driver per capita. Therefore, greater participation of these countries in conservation policies for endangered species is necessary. Additionally, a more detailed differentiation of the term “trophy” to more specific terms such as claws, skins, skulls, etc. may improve reporting systems to easier identify illegal activities related to hunting.     

Investigating the feasibility of a passive tracking index for monitoring wildlife in the Lower Omo Valley, Ethiopia

In many places in Africa, constraints in human, financial and physical resources are common problems that limit the effectiveness of wildlife researchers and managers. In an attempt to identify a useful tool for monitoring African wildlife populations, we tested a passive tracking index (PTI) methodology on a unique wildlife resource area in the Lower Omo Valley, Ethiopia. The methodology had previously proved valuable for monitoring a wide variety of wildlife species, including ungulates and carnivores in North America and Australia. Two ungulates (lesser kudu and dikdik), a carnivore (hyaena), a primate (baboon), and a ground foraging bird (guineafowl) were simultaneously indexed. In addition, single observations were recorded for genet, serval and caracal. The species indexed also represent the broad needs for monitoring wildlife. The mammal species are of economic importance to the region through sport hunting. Two of the species, hyaenas and baboons, potentially conflict with human agricultural interests through depredations on livestock and crop production. Anthrax periodically decimates the wildlife in the Lower Omo Valley, Ethiopia, but losses of many species are difficult to observe or quantitatively document. The PTI is a simple‐to‐apply, easy‐to‐calculate means to quantify simultaneously population trends for multiple species, and particularly applicable to sustainable harvest by sport hunting, human–wildlife conflicts, and impacts and recovery from wildlife disease.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Sarcoptes</Emphasis> mite epidemiology and treatment in African buffalo (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Syncerus caffer</Emphasis>) calves captured for translocation from the Kafue game management area to game ranches

Background  

In Zambia, translocation of wildlife from National Parks to private owned game ranches demands that only animals free of infectious diseases that could adversely affect the expansion of the wildlife industry should be translocated to game ranches. Sarcoptes mange (Sarcoptes scarbiei) has been involved in the reduction of wildlife populations in some species.     

Discovery and Partial Genomic Characterisation of a Novel Nidovirus Associated with Respiratory Disease in Wild Shingleback Lizards (Tiliqua rugosa)

A respiratory disease syndrome has been observed in large numbers of wild shingleback lizards (Tiliqua rugosa) admitted to wildlife care facilities in the Perth metropolitan region of Western Australia. Mortality rates are reportedly high without supportive treatment and care. Here we used next generation sequencing techniques to screen affected and unaffected individuals admitted to Kanyana Wildlife Rehabilitation Centre in Perth between April and December 2015, with the resultant discovery of a novel nidovirus significantly associated with cases of respiratory disease according to a case definition based on clinical signs. Interestingly this virus was also found in 12% of apparently healthy individuals, which may reflect testing during the incubation period or a carrier status, or it may be that this agent is not causative in the disease process. This is the first report of a nidovirus in lizards globally. In addition to detection of this virus, characterisation of a 23,832 nt segment of the viral genome revealed the presence of characteristic nidoviral genomic elements providing phylogenetic support for the inclusion of this virus in a novel genus alongside Ball Python nidovirus, within the Torovirinae sub-family of the Coronaviridae. This study highlights the importance of next generation sequencing technologies to detect and describe emerging infectious diseases in wildlife species, as well as the importance of rehabilitation centres to enhance early detection mechanisms through passive and targeted health surveillance. Further development of diagnostic tools from these findings will aid in detection and control of this agent across Australia, and potentially in wild lizard populations globally.     

Control hunting of wild animals: health,money, or pleasure?

In many parts of the world, millions of wildlife species are hunted for sport, food, skins, and other products. In recent years, a backlash has emerged from certain groups of society against this long-standing human pursuit. However, attitudes towards the control of wild animals to reduce the health risk to other animals, to lessen agricultural damage, or to protect game species, may generate a different reaction, where even killing is tolerated. In this paper, we analyze the public’s acceptance of control hunting in Andalusia (southern Spain). Our results suggest that lethal control to improve domestic animal health is highly accepted (75%) is more controversial when animals are killed for damaging crops (59% acceptance) and is highly unaccepted when the goal is to enhance game species numbers (22% acceptance). Older people and males, in particular, accept more readily some of these control-hunting measures. These results are needed to understand better the public attitudes on which conservation managers can base their decisions when control hunting is required.     

Lions,trophy hunting and beyond: knowledge gaps and why they matter

What does trophy hunting (selective hunting for recreation) contribute to wild lion conservation? Macdonald (Report on Lion Conservation with Particular Respect to the Issue of Trophy Hunting. WildCRU, Oxford, UK, 2016) summarises what we know. We identify unknowns, gaps in the knowledge that inhibit conservation planning, including: the causes of lion mortality, the amount of land used for lion trophy hunting, the extent to which trophy hunting depends on lions for financial viability, and the vulnerability of areas used for hunting to conversion to land not used for wildlife, if trophy hunting ceased. The cost of reversing biodiversity loss exceeds income from tourism, including hunting. New financial models are needed, particularly in view of the expanding human population in Africa.     

Translocation of overabundant species: Implications for translocated individuals

Effective management of overabundant animal populations is a difficult challenge for wildlife managers around the globe. Translocation is often considered a viable management tool, whereby individual animals are removed from areas of high population density and released in areas where densities are lower. Typically, the success of a translocation program is measured at the population source, with little attention given to the fate of translocated individuals. Here we use a koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) translocation program from southeastern Australia as a case study to investigate the effects of translocation on individual animals. The koala is an iconic species that occurs at high densities in some parts of its southern range, leading to numerous conservation and animal welfare issues. Between 1997 and 2007 over 3,000 koalas from a high-density island population were captured, surgically sterilized, and translocated to the mainland. Annual post-translocation surveys at release sites revealed densities of ≤0.4 koalas/ha, despite release densities of 1.0 koala/ha. Radiotracking studies indicate that low densities were because of both mortality and high dispersal of translocated individuals. We observed a mortality rate of 37.5% for translocated koalas in the first 12 months post-release. No deaths occurred among animals that were not sterilized and translocated. Translocated koalas moved greater distances than non-translocated animals. Monitoring of translocated individuals should be performed routinely during translocation programs for overabundant species. Due consideration must be given to what is an acceptable level of mortality for translocated individuals. Although often considered an ethically acceptable management technique (especially for iconic and charismatic species), translocation may not always be the best option from an animal welfare perspective. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.     

Trapping in predator management: catching the profile of trap users in Sweden

Many populations of wildlife, including large- and medium-sized predators are increasing in Europe. Trapping can be one way to reduce negative impacts of predators on human interests, such as game species and threatened species, but there is little knowledge of trap usage and motivation behind it. We used a mail survey in Sweden (n?=?3,886 respondents) to compare predator trappers with hunters who used other methods to kill predators, and with other hunters who did not kill predators, in regard to sociodemographics, beliefs, behaviors, and constraints. During 12 months prior to the survey 19 % of respondents had trapped any small- or medium-sized predator, while 15 % of respondents had trapped and 55 % had hunted (without using traps) red fox (Vulpes vulpes), European badger (Meles meles), or corvid birds. Reducing predator numbers was an important reason for hunting predators with traps. Of predator trappers, 97 % had hunted species that were potentially prey of the targeted predators (e.g., roe deer [Capreolus capreolus], hare [Lepus spp.], and grouse), 94 % believed that there were too many red foxes, badgers, or corvids on their main hunting ground, and 64 % believed it to be very important to reduce predator numbers to benefit other game species. We conclude that the use of traps is widespread among Swedish hunters, and that increasing wildlife populations, increased presence of wildlife in urban areas, and management of invasive species calls for effective management actions, of which trapping can be one.     

From forest to farm: systematic review of cultivar feeding by chimpanzees--management implications for wildlife in anthropogenic landscapes

Crop-raiding is a major source of conflict between people and wildlife globally, impacting local livelihoods and impeding conservation. Conflict mitigation strategies that target problematic wildlife behaviours such as crop-raiding are notoriously difficult to develop for large-bodied, cognitively complex species. Many crop-raiders are generalist feeders. In more ecologically specialised species crop-type selection is not random and evidence-based management requires a good understanding of species' ecology and crop feeding habits. Comprehensive species-wide studies of crop consumption by endangered wildlife are lacking but are important for managing human-wildlife conflict. We conducted a comprehensive literature search of crop feeding records by wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes), a ripe-fruit specialist. We assessed quantitatively patterns of crop selection in relation to species-specific feeding behaviour, agricultural exposure, and crop availability. Crop consumption by chimpanzees is widespread in tropical Africa. Chimpanzees were recorded to eat a considerable range of cultivars (51 plant parts from 36 species). Crop part selection reflected a species-typical preference for fruit. Crops widely distributed in chimpanzee range countries were eaten at more sites than sparsely distributed crops. We identified 'high' and 'low' conflict crops according to their attractiveness to chimpanzees, taking account of their importance as cash crops and/or staple foods to people. Most (86%) high conflict crops were fruits, compared to 13% of low conflict crops. Some widely farmed cash or staple crops were seldom or never eaten by chimpanzees. Information about which crops are most frequently consumed and which are ignored has enormous potential for aiding on-the-ground stakeholders (i.e. farmers, wildlife managers, and conservation and agricultural extension practitioners) develop sustainable wildlife management schemes for ecologically specialised and protected species in anthropogenic habitats. However, the economic and subsistence needs of local people, and the crop-raiding behaviour of sympatric wildlife, must be considered when assessing suitability of particular crops for conflict prevention and mitigation.     

Socio‐demographic factors influence the attitudes of local residents towards trophy hunting activities in the Kilombero Valley,Tanzania

Within the Kilombero Game Controlled Area (KGCA) of Tanzania, protection is offered to large mammal populations by trophy hunting concessions that maintain natural habitat through the prevention of extensive human encroachment. The opinions of local communities to wildlife management operations such as trophy hunting play an important role in their long‐term viability. This study addresses the influence of socio‐demographic factors on the opinions of local communities to trophy hunting in areas that are not part of community‐based management projects, which is where most research of this type has previously been conducted. Semi‐structured questionnaires were conducted in 24 villages within the Kilombero Valley (fifteen interviews per village) in August–December 2007. The extent to which socio‐demographic factors including location (e.g. village of residence) and individual respondent characteristics (e.g. gender and age) influenced the respondents’ opinions was analysed. Of these socio‐demographic factors, all, except age and district of residence, were found to influence the opinions of local residents. Socio‐demographic factors play an important role in determining local communities’ attitudes towards trophy hunting, and this must be taken into account during the design and assessment of wildlife management conservation strategies, both locally in the KGCA and in similar national and international initiatives.     

Conservation implications of prey responses to wild dogs Lycaon pictus during the denning season on wildlife ranches

The spread of game ranching in southern Africa provides opportunities for the reestablishment of populations of endangered wild dogs extirpated by livestock ranchers. However, this potential has not been realized, partly because of negative rancher perceptions. Some ranchers believe that wild dogs impart costs by killing wildlife that could be utilized consumptively. Others complain that wild dogs make ungulates 'skittish' and cause local reductions in prey densities while denning. We compared the skittishness and density of prey species inside and outside the denning home ranges of nine wild dog packs in Zimbabwe. Wild dogs had no impact on prey skittishness, but prey species did occur at lower densities inside denning home ranges. In some scenarios, and particularly on fenced game ranches, wild dogs could cause prey population declines during denning. On small game ranches, the use of fences as a tool by wild dogs during hunting can increase the proportion of large prey species in their diet by up to 11 times, and thus increase the minimum area required to support that diet. In addition, game fencing is typically permeable to wild dogs but not their prey, preventing the recovery of prey populations through the natural influx of prey animals into the denning area following departure of the dogs. Wild dogs could thus impose significant financial costs to game ranchers hosting denning packs. Our findings emphasize the importance of promoting the formation of conservancies, where neighbouring landowners remove boundary fences to create larger contiguous wildlife areas.     

An Accessible Method for Implementing Hierarchical Models with Spatio-Temporal Abundance Data

A common goal in ecology and wildlife management is to determine the causes of variation in population dynamics over long periods of time and across large spatial scales. Many assumptions must nevertheless be overcome to make appropriate inference about spatio-temporal variation in population dynamics, such as autocorrelation among data points, excess zeros, and observation error in count data. To address these issues, many scientists and statisticians have recommended the use of Bayesian hierarchical models. Unfortunately, hierarchical statistical models remain somewhat difficult to use because of the necessary quantitative background needed to implement them, or because of the computational demands of using Markov Chain Monte Carlo algorithms to estimate parameters. Fortunately, new tools have recently been developed that make it more feasible for wildlife biologists to fit sophisticated hierarchical Bayesian models (i.e., Integrated Nested Laplace Approximation, ‘INLA’). We present a case study using two important game species in North America, the lesser and greater scaup, to demonstrate how INLA can be used to estimate the parameters in a hierarchical model that decouples observation error from process variation, and accounts for unknown sources of excess zeros as well as spatial and temporal dependence in the data. Ultimately, our goal was to make unbiased inference about spatial variation in population trends over time.