Experimental tests of copying and mate choice in fallow deer (Dama dama)

In fallow deer (Dama dama), as well as in other lek-breedingungulates, receptive females arriving at leks commonly joinmales that are defending large harems. This tendency enhancesdifferences in harem size and mating success between males.It could occur because females independendy move to the samemales, because females are attracted to males with females,or because females are attracted to each other. Using controlledexperiments with estrous female fallow deer, we show that, althoughfemales are more attracted to males with harems than to thosewithout, they are as frequently attracted to groups of femaleswithout a male as to female groups with males. We conclude thatfemale fallow deer joining leks are attracted to each otherand copy each other's movements. As yet, there is no firm evidencein fallow deer or in other lek-breeding ungulates that femalescopy each other's choice of mating partners. Key words: Damadama, fallow deer, lek breeding, mate choice, copying behavior.[Behav Ecol 4: 191–193 (1993)]     

Fluctuating asymmetry in antlers of fallow deer (Dama dama): the relative roles of environmental stress and sexual selection

Antler lengths were recorded of a total of 250 male fallow deer (Dama dama (L)). Animals sampled were from marked populations where the majority of individuals were of known age. Asymmetry in antler length was normally distributed with a mean not significantly different from zero, confirming that differences in length between the antler pair constitute a true fluctuating asymmetry (FA). We found no clear relationship between the degree of asymmetry in antler length of an individual male and either population density or actual body mass. We did, however, detect a significant relationship between asymmetry and deviation from maximum cohort bodyweight. If deviation from maximum weight within a cohort may be considered some index of competitive success or increasing environmental stress, this may suggest that asymmetry in antler length relates in some way to developmental stress suffered by the individual concerned. The degree of asymmetry recorded in antler length also showed a significant decline with animal age, with antlers of animals of 2 years or older showing significantly greater symmetry. This is consistent with a hypothesis that despite continued competition for resources, there is a changing balance of selection pressure as animals reach maturity, with increased pressure from sexual selection requiring males to produce significantly more symmetrical ornaments.     

Anatomy of the tongue and microstructure of the lingual papillae in the fallow deer Dama dama (Linnaeus, 1758)

The function of mouth organs in ruminants is connected with the process of rumination. To study morphofunctional relations, microstructures in tongues of 4- to 5-year old adult fallow deer were examined using scanning electron microscopy.When analyzing the tongue of the fallow deer, i.e. a ruminant classified as an intermediate mixed feeder between grass and roughage eaters, two processes were taken into account: (i) foraging and forage selecting, and (ii) chewing the cud during rumination to reduce particle size and improve digestibility.Microstructural results show that the above mentioned processes in fallow deer are important selection factors, which in the anterior part of tongue led to the development of clusters of fungiform papillae connected with preselection of food as well as a specific pattern of filiform papillae promoting increased adhesion of transported food. Massive and flattened conical papillae on the torus are arranged according to sideways jaw movements and are co-localized with flattened fungiform papillae and two rows of vallate papillae. Such an arrangement of papillae on the lingual torus presumably facilities distribution of ruminated food, with simultaneous transferring of taste signals about masticated food particles.     

Biochemical and histological study of the ossification in the early developing pedicle of the fallow deer (Dama dama)

To date, no histochemical data exist concerning the process of ossification of developing pedicles in deer. Four different zones of the growing pedicle (subcutaneous tissue; fibrous layer of the periosteum; cambial layer of the periosteum; women bone of the primary spongiosa) were analysed in direct correlation to their histological appearance. The level of extractable specific alkaline phosphatase in the preosseous zones of the pedicle was 4-fold higher than levels in the epiphyseal growth plate previously reported. These results reflect that rapid bone formation takes place in the growing pedicle. Highest buffer-extractable alkaline phosphatase activity was found in the cambial layer directly in front of the mineralization area of the pedicle-bone, connected with maximal values for organically bound phosphate and inorganic phosphate. Moreover, the values for buffer-extractable alkaline phosphatase, organically bound phosphate and inorganic phosphate decreased with increasing mineralization in the zone of the primary spongiosa. The present histological and biochemical findings on the process of ossification in the pedicle show similarities to typical endochondral ossification. The process of pedicle growth may serve as a new and important system for chondrogenic and osteogenic studies, including a better understanding of antler development.     

Mobile larynx in Mongolian gazelle: Retraction of the larynx during rutting barks in male Mongolian gazelle (Procapra gutturosa Pallas, 1777)

This study provides the first evidence of pronounced temporary laryngeal descent in a bovid species. An elaborate acoustic display is prominent in male courtship behavior of polygynous Mongolian gazelle. During rut, rounding up of females is accompanied by continuous head‐up barking by dominant males. Throughout the rut their evolutionarily enlarged larynx descends to a low mid‐neck resting position. In the course of each bark the larynx is additionally retracted toward the sternum by 30% of the resting vocal tract length. A geometric model of active larynx movements was constructed by combining results of video documentation, dissection, skeletonization, and behavioral observation. The considerable distance between resting position and maximal laryngeal descent suggests a backward tilting of the hyoid apparatus and an extension of the thyrohyoid connection during the retraction phase. Return to the resting position is effected by strap muscles and by the elastic recoil of the pharynx and the thyrohyoid connection. An intrapharyngeal inflation of the peculiar palatinal pharyngeal pouch of adult males is inferred from a short‐time expansion of the ventral neck region rostral to the laryngeal prominence. The neck of adult dominant males is accentuated by long gray guard hairs during the rut. The passive swinging of the heavy larynx of adult males during locomotion gives the impression of a handicap imposed on rutting males. Apparently, this disadvantage becomes outweighed by the profits for reproductive success. J. Morphol., 2008. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Phylogeography of the last surviving populations of Rhodian and Anatolian fallow deer (Dama dama dama L., 1758)

The European fallow deer ( Dama dama dama ) is one of the most widespread cervids, and its distribution has been heavily affected by man. At present, only one wild autochthonous population is reputed to survive in Anatolia, but its census size is dramatically decreasing. This means that a significant portion of the ancestral genetic diversity of this taxon is seriously threatened. In the present study, a portion of the mitochondrial DNA (D-loop) in 37 D. d. dama specimens from three Mediterranean sites, Turkey, the island of Rhodes (Greece), and the Italian Peninsula, and seven individuals of the Persian fallow deer, Dama dama mesopotamica , was sequenced, and the results from the data analysis are interpreted in light of current archaeozoological and biogeographical knowledge. We conclude that: (1) D. d. mesopotamica is strongly differentiated from D. d. dama , confirming the results of previous genetic studies and (2) the Rhodian populations of D. d. dama , founded by humans in Neolithic times, possess a set of mitochondrial lineages, found in no other study populations. The persistence of these haplotypes is particularly significant because human-mediated processes (e.g. domestication) usually result in genetic depletion and erosion of an ancestral genetic pool. In the case of the Rhodes' population of fallow deer, we hypothesize that, during the foundation of this population, humans unknowingly preserved a remarkable portion of the original genetic diversity of the source population(s).  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 93 , 835–844.     

Female red deer prefer the roars of larger males

Surprisingly little is known about the role of acoustic cues in mammal female mate choice. Here, we examine the response of female red deer (Cervus elaphus) to male roars in which an acoustic cue to body size, the formants, has been re-scaled to simulate different size callers. Our results show that oestrous red deer hinds prefer roars simulating larger callers and constitute the first evidence that female mammals use an acoustic cue to body size in a mate choice context. We go on to suggest that sexual selection through female mating preferences may have provided an additional selection pressure along with male-male competition for broadcasting size-related information in red deer and other mammals.     

Seasonal variations in serum concentrations of testosterone,testicular volume and neck circumference of fallow deer (Dama dama) kept ex situ in a tropical region

The fallow deer (Dama dama) is a species of Cervidae commonly kept in captivity, either in commercial farms or in zoos. The reproductive seasonality of this species is well known in the northern hemisphere, where photoperiod is a decisive factor in androgenic activity and, consequently, in the development of secondary sexual characteristics among male adults. The maintenance of this species in tropical regions has been successful, but there are no studies that demonstrate the maintenance of reproductive seasonality under these climatic conditions, which was the objective of the present study. To do so, the present investigation involved 27 fallow deer (D. dama) specimens, of which 14 were adults and 13 prepubescent (<8 months) individuals, all assessed during and outside (December–February) the reproductive season (June–August). The serum concentrations of testosterone, testicular volume, and neck circumference were analyzed among all animals during both seasons. The reproductive season was marked by expressive hormonal concentrations, increasing neck circumference and testicular volume, differing significantly between adults and prepubescent individuals outside the season. Positive correlations were observed among all analyzed variables: mean testicular volume and neck circumference (r = 0.92, p < 0.0001), testicular volume and testosterone concentrations (r = 0.79, p < 0.0001) and between neck circumference and testosterone concentrations (r = 0.67, p < 0.0001). Given the results found, the conclusion is that even under tropical climate conditions the reproductive seasonality of the fallow deer is well defined and may be related to photoperiod.     

Pattern of LH and testosterone secretion of adult male fallow deer (Dama dama) during the transition into the breeding season

Pituitary secretion of LH and testicular secretion of testosterone were investigated during the transitional period from the non-breeding to breeding season of mature male fallow deer exhibiting either normal transitional patterns or shortened transitional patterns in response to summer melatonin treatment. Melatonin implants were administered to 4 bucks for a 150-day period starting 130 days after the winter solstice. Four contemporary bucks served as controls. Melatonin treatment advanced rutting activity, testis development and neck muscle hypertrophy by 6-8 weeks. Profiles of plasma LH and testosterone, based on a 30-min sampling frequency over 24 h, were obtained from 3 treated and 3 control bucks on 4 occasions over the period spanning the transition into the breeding season. In control bucks, LH and testosterone pulse frequency were low (0-2 pulses/24 h) in January and increased (5-7 pulses/24 h) in February. By March and April (pre-rut and rut periods respectively) there was a two-fold increase in basal plasma LH concentrations, a decline in LH pulse frequency (0-1 pulse/24 h) and episodic surges in plasma testosterone concentrations. Melatonin treatment resulted in a shift in hormone profiles, with highly pulsatile patterns of LH and testosterone secretion (7 pulses/24 h) occurring earlier in January. The subsequent post-rut profiles of treated bucks were characterized by lower basal plasma LH concentrations, and reduced frequency and amplitude of plasma testosterone surges.     

The dentition of fallow deer (Dama dama): a scoring scheme to assess age from wear of the permanent molariform teeth

The sequence of tooth wear was determined from skulls of fallow deer of known age. A system for scoring molariform tooth wear has been devised so that small but readily recognizable wear changes of the individual cusps may be recorded and used to assess the age of animals of unknown birth dates. The technique can be readily adapted for other ruminant species with the appropriate database.     

Electrophysiological measurements of spectral mechanisms in the retinas of two cervids: white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and fallow deer (Dama dama)

Electroretinogram (ERG) flicker photometry was used to study the spectral mechanisms in the retinas of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and fallow deer (Dama dama). In addition to having a rod pigment with maximum sensitivity (_max) of about 497 nm, both species appear to have two classes of photopic receptors. They share in common a short-wavelength-sensitive cone mechanism having _max in the region of 450–460 nm. Each also has a cone having peak sensitivity in the middle wavelengths, but these differ slightly for the two species. In white-tailed deer the _max of this cone is about 537 nm; for the fallow deer the average _max value for this mechanism was 542 nm. Deer resemble other ungulates and many other types of mammal in having two classes of cone pigment and, thus, the requisite retinal basis for dichromatic color vision.Abbreviations ERG electroretinogram - LWS long wavelength sensitive - MWS middle wavelength sensitive - SWS short wavelength sensitive     

Fate of recombinant DNA and Cry1Ab protein after ingestion and dispersal of genetically modified maize in comparison to rapeseed by fallow deer (Dama dama)

The fate of recombinant DNA in fallow deer (Dama dama) was investigated by feeding a diet of isogenic or genetically modified (GM) maize expressing Cry1Ab protein against the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis). To study the degradability of ingested DNA, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays were introduced to detect fragments of the endogenous, highly abundant chloroplast-specific rubisco gene, the maize-specific zein gene and the recombinant cry1Ab gene. PCR analysis revealed that small chloroplast- and maize-specific DNA fragments were detectable in contents of rumen, abomasums, jejunum, caecum and colon and occasionally in visceral tissues. In contrast, no fragments of the recombinant cry1Ab gene were detectable in gastrointestinal (GI) contents. The Cry1Ab protein was analysed using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunoblotting technique. Neither ELISA nor immunoblotting yielded positive signals of immunoactive Cry1Ab protein in GI contents and tissues of fallow deer fed with GM maize. In conclusion, after uptake of GM maize, neither cry1Ab-specific gene fragments nor Cry1Ab protein were detected in the GI tract of fallow deer, indicating complete digestion of the GM maize. Additional investigations on the germination capacity of conventional rapeseed and maize seed after ingestion by fallow deer and faecal excretion (endozoochory) were performed to draw conclusions regarding a potential spreading of germinable GM crop seed by deer. Germination tests revealed that germinable rapeseed kernels were detectable in faeces; in contrast, no intact maize seeds were found in faeces.     

The evolution of the giant deer, Megaloceros giganteus (Blumenbach)

The giant deer, Megaloceros giganteus , is best known from its fossil occurrences in Ireland around 11 000 years ago, but has a history across Europe and Western Asia spanning 300 000–400 000 years. This paper reports a biometric study of variation and evolution in the giant deer through its history. Most early populations were as large in body size as the Irish sample, but some were distincdy smaller and others had markedly shorter limbs. Thickened skull and mandibular bones, especially marked in males, are constant throughout die species' history. Some earlier populations had anders which were relatively smaller, more upright and differing in other details from the celebrated Irish specimens. Observed variation in body and antler form is discussed in terms of changing palaeoenvironments. Interpretation of the fighting or display roles of M. giganteus antlers needs to take account of their differing forms through time.     

Polymorphisms and variants in the prion protein sequence of European moose (Alces alces), reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and fallow deer (Dama dama) in Scandinavia

The prion protein (PrP) sequence of European moose, reindeer, roe deer and fallow deer in Scandinavia has high homology to the PrP sequence of North American cervids. Variants in the European moose PrP sequence were found at amino acid position 109 as K or Q. The 109Q variant is unique in the PrP sequence of vertebrates. During the 1980s a wasting syndrome in Swedish moose, Moose Wasting Syndrome (MWS), was described. SNP analysis demonstrated a difference in the observed genotype proportions of the heterozygous Q/K and homozygous Q/Q variants in the MWS animals compared with the healthy animals. In MWS moose the allele frequencies for 109K and 109Q were 0.73 and 0.27, respectively, and for healthy animals 0.69 and 0.31. Both alleles were seen as heterozygotes and homozygotes. In reindeer, PrP sequence variation was demonstrated at codon 176 as D or N and codon 225 as S or Y. The PrP sequences in roe deer and fallow deer were identical with published GenBank sequences.