Human disturbance and the activity patterns and temporal overlap of tapirs and jaguars in reserves of NW Belize

Human disturbance from tourism and other non-consumptive activities in protected areas may be stressful to wildlife. Animals may move away in space or time to avoid human interaction. For species of particular conservation concern, such as Baird's tapirs (Tapirus bairdii) and jaguars (Panthera onca), a better understanding of how they respond to different levels and types of disturbance is needed in order to manage human visitation to parks in ways that minimize negative outcomes for wildlife. We describe the overlap in activity patterns of tapirs, jaguars, and humans at logged and unlogged sites and at places with low versus high human visitation using camera survey data from protected areas of NW Belize, 2013–2016. Tapirs were nocturnal in all study sites, with > 80% of all tapir detections occurring between 1900 hr and 0500 hr. Their activity patterns were not different in unlogged versus logged sites and did not change with increased human traffic. Jaguars were cathemeral across sites but had more nocturnal activity at the site with the most human impact. Activity pattern overlap between tapirs and jaguars did not differ significantly between logged and unlogged sites, nor between areas with low and high human activity. Human traffic increased from 2013 to 2016 at most of the study locations. In conclusion, this camera trap dataset suggests that non-consumptive human disturbance does not alter the activity patterns of tapirs and jaguars in protected areas lacking hunting pressure.     

Experimentelle Untersuchungen zur akustischen Kommunikation bei im Zoo gehaltenen Schabracken- und Flachlandtapiren (Tapirus indicus und Tapirus terrestris)

Until now, unlike their relatives, rhinos and horses tapirs have received considerably less attention in studies about communication. Therefore, it was the aim of this study to test which stimuli contain acoustical information for tapirs. For this purpose, the reactions of tapirs on acoustical stimuli (playback of different animal voices) were examined. Research visits took place at the zoos of Berlin, Dortmund, Heidelberg, Munich, Nuremberg and Osnabrück during the year 2005. A total of 20 individuals, thereof 8 (4.4) Malayan tapirs (Tapirus indicus) and 12 (4.8) Lowland tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) attended the experiments. The playback experiments showed that tapirs distinguish between the voices of different animal species. The results point to the conclusion that the reactions of the tapirs relate to phylogeny. The most intense interest was taken in their own species followed by the closely related ones.     

Home Range, Habitat Use, and Activity of Baird's Tapir in Costa Rica1

Home range size, habitat utilization, and activity patterns of five adult Bairds tapirs (Tapirus bairdii) were studied via radiotelemetry from June 1995 to May 1996 in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica. Estimates of 4153 animal locations were made. Home range sizes (95% minimum convex polygon) for the entire study period (wet season and dry season) averaged 125.0 ha (SD = 72.7), 94.9 ha (SD = 47.6), and 96.8 ha (SD = 51.2), respectively. Monthly home range sizes averaged 55.5 ha (SD = 32.1) and did not vary between seasons. Across the entire study, secondary forest, the most commonly used habitat type (61.3%) was utilized more than expected as predicted by availability (49.6%), while the second most used habitat, primary forest, was used (25.0%) less than expected (36.2%). The same general habitat selection pattern was observed in the dry season. Wet season habitat utilization values showed tapirs using both primary and secondary forest habitats in proportion to their availability. Diurnal and nocturnal activity levels were estimated at 20.2 and 80.4 percent, respectively. More diurnal and less nocturnal activity was observed during the wet season compared to the dry season.     

Asian Tapirs Are No Elephants When It Comes To Seed Dispersal

The elimination of the largest herbivores (elephants and rhinoceroses) from many forests in tropical East Asia may have severe consequences for plant species that depend on them for seed dispersal. We assessed the capacity of Malayan tapirs Tapirus indicus—the next largest nonruminant herbivore in the region—as a substitute for the lost megafauna in this role by studying their ability to disperse the seeds of nine fleshy‐fruited plants with seeds 5–97 mm in length. We combined information from feeding trials, germination tests, and field telemetry to assess the effect of tapir consumption on seed viability and to estimate how far the seeds would be dispersed. The tapirs (N=8) ingested few seeds. Seed survival through gut passage was moderately high for small‐seeded plants (e.g., 36.9% for Dillenia indica) but very low for medium‐ (e.g., 7.6% for Tamarindus indica) and large‐seeded (e.g., 2.8% for Artocarpus integer) plants. Mean seed gut passage times were long (63–236 h) and only the smallest seeds germinated afterwards. Using movement data from four wild tapirs in Peninsular Malaysia we estimated mean dispersal distances of 917–1287 m (range=22–3289 m) for small‐seeded plants. Malayan tapirs effectively dispersed small‐seeded plants but acted as seed predators for the large‐seeded plants included in our study, suggesting that they cannot replace larger herbivores in seed dispersal. With the absence of elephants and rhinos many megafaunal‐syndrome plants in tropical East Asia are expected to face severe dispersal limitation problems.     

Stable Isotope Ecology of Extant Tapirs from the Americas

Understanding the ecology of modern and ancient forests can help clarify the evolution of forest dwelling mammals. It is first necessary, however, to elucidate the source and extent of stable isotope variation in forest taxa. Tapirs are of particular interest because they are model organisms for identifying forest environments due to their highly conservative diet and habitat preferences. Here, stable carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions of extant tapirs are quantified to test hypotheses regarding ontogenetic diet shifts, stable isotope variation at the population level, and relationships between stable isotopes and climatic variables. A population of extant tapirs (Tapirus bairdii) demonstrates low δ¹³C variation (～2–3‰) and increased δ¹³C values in late erupting teeth, indicating that juveniles consume ¹³C deplete milk and/or browse in denser forests. Disparate δ¹⁸O values of late erupting teeth are instead reflecting seasonal variation. Extant tapir (T. bairdii, Tapirus pinchaque, Tapirus terrestris) δ¹⁸O values are constrained by climatic and geographic variables. Most notably, δ¹⁸O values of T. bairdii decrease with decreasing precipitation frequency. Tapirus terrestris is typically present in areas with greater precipitation than T. bairdii and δ¹⁸O values instead positively correlate with δ¹³C values. These data indicate that tapirs in wetter areas are getting a larger proportion of their water from leaves experiencing less evaporation in denser canopies, while T. bairdii is interpreted to increase its consumption of water via drinking when present in drier areas. An understanding of extant tapir stable isotope ecology improves ecological interpretations of these elusive mammals both today and in the past. Abstract in Spanish is available at http://www.blackwell‐synergy.com/loi/btp .     

A three‐dimensional morphometric analysis of upper forelimb morphology in the enigmatic tapir (Perissodactyla: Tapirus) hints at subtle variations in locomotor ecology

Forelimb morphology is an indicator for terrestrial locomotor ecology. The limb morphology of the enigmatic tapir (Perissodactyla: Tapirus) has often been compared to that of basal perissodactyls, despite the lack of quantitative studies comparing forelimb variation in modern tapirs. Here, we present a quantitative assessment of tapir upper forelimb osteology using three‐dimensional geometric morphometrics to test whether the four modern tapir species are monomorphic in their forelimb skeleton. The shape of the upper forelimb bones across four species (T. indicus; T. bairdii; T. terrestris; T. pinchaque) was investigated. Bones were laser scanned to capture surface morphology and 3D landmark analysis was used to quantify shape. Discriminant function analyses were performed to reveal features which could be used for interspecific discrimination. Overall our results show that the appendicular skeleton contains notable interspecific differences. We demonstrate that upper forelimb bones can be used to discriminate between species (>91% accuracy), with the scapula proving the most diagnostic bone (100% accuracy). Features that most successfully discriminate between the four species include the placement of the cranial angle of the scapula, depth of the humeral condyle, and the caudal deflection of the olecranon. Previous studies comparing the limbs of T. indicus and T. terrestris are corroborated by our quantitative findings. Moreover, the mountain tapir T. pinchaque consistently exhibited the greatest divergence in morphology from the other three species. Despite previous studies describing tapirs as functionally mediportal in their locomotor style, we find osteological evidence suggesting a spectrum of locomotor adaptations in the tapirs. We conclude that modern tapir forelimbs are neither monomorphic nor are tapirs as conserved in their locomotor habits as previously described. J. Morphol. 277:1469–1485, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Functional Redundancy and Complementarities of Seed Dispersal by the Last Neotropical Megafrugivores

Background

Functional redundancy has been debated largely in ecology and conservation, yet we lack detailed empirical studies on the roles of functionally similar species in ecosystem function. Large bodied frugivores may disperse similar plant species and have strong impact on plant recruitment in tropical forests. The two largest frugivores in the neotropics, tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) and muriquis (Brachyteles arachnoides) are potential candidates for functional redundancy on seed dispersal effectiveness. Here we provide a comparison of the quantitative, qualitative and spatial effects on seed dispersal by these megafrugivores in a continuous Brazilian Atlantic forest.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We found a low overlap of plant species dispersed by both muriquis and tapirs. A group of 35 muriquis occupied an area of 850 ha and dispersed 5 times more plant species, and 13 times more seeds than 22 tapirs living in the same area. Muriquis dispersed 2.4 times more seeds in any random position than tapirs. This can be explained mainly because seed deposition by muriquis leaves less empty space than tapirs. However, tapirs are able to disperse larger seeds than muriquis and move them into sites not reached by primates, such as large forest gaps, open areas and fragments nearby. Based on published information we found 302 plant species that are dispersed by at least one of these megafrugivores in the Brazilian Atlantic forest.

Conclusions/Significance

Our study showed that both megafrugivores play complementary rather than redundant roles as seed dispersers. Although tapirs disperse fewer seeds and species than muriquis, they disperse larger-seeded species and in places not used by primates. The selective extinction of these megafrugivores will change the spatial seed rain they generate and may have negative effects on the recruitment of several plant species, particularly those with large seeds that have muriquis and tapirs as the last living seed dispersers.     

Butorphanol/xylazine/ketamine immobilization of free-ranging Baird's tapirs in Costa Rica

Cardiopulmonary effects and the utility of a butorphanol/xylazine/ketamine combination were evaluated during twenty immobilizations of sixteen Baird's tapirs (Tapirus bairdii) between March 1996 and January of 1998 in Corcovado National Park (Costa Rica). The animals were attracted to a bait site and darted from tree platforms. The tapirs were estimated to weigh between 200 to 300 kg. Actual weights of three tapirs taken at later dates fell within the estimated range. A butorphanol, 48+/-1.84 (x +/- SE) mg/animal IM, and xylazine, 101+/-2.72 mg/animal IM, combination was used to immobilize the animals. In some instances, ketamine was used either IM or IV at 187+/-40.86 mg/animal to prolong the immobilization period in addition to the butorphanol/xylazine combination. Naltrexone was used IM to reverse butorphanol at 257+/-16.19 mg/animal. Either yohimbine, 34+/-0.61 or tolazoline at 12+/-10.27 mg/animal, was used to reverse xylazine. The mean time from dart impact to first visible effect was 4.63+/-0.50 min (x +/- SE). Mean time to sternal recumbency was 12.21+/-1.08 min. Mean time the tapirs were immobilized was 45.63+/-3.6 min. Mean time to return to sternal recumbency and standing in animals that received yohimbine and naltrexone was 3.16+/-1.06 and 5.33+/-1.45 min, respectively. Mean time to return to sternal recumbency and standing in animals that received tolazoline and naltrexone was 1.57+/-0.39 and 3.14+/-0.51 min, respectively. Cardiopulmonary parameters including heart rate, respiratory rate, body temperature, electrocardiogram, percent oxygen satoration, and indirect blood pressure were recorded. Arterial blood gas analysis was performed on four animals. A mild degree of hypoxemia was evidenced by low arterial oxygen saturations. Five of 14 (36%) animals measured had oxygen saturations below 90%. Bradycardia (heart rates <45 BPM) was an expected finding in 11 (55%) immobilizations. Induction, recovery and muscle relaxation of each immobilization was graded. Premature arousal, which occurred in six (30%) animals, was the only problem associated with the immobilizations. Butorphanol/xylazine is a recommended protocol for immobilization of calm, free-ranging tapirs lasting less than 30 min. Supplemental intravenous administration of ketamine is recommended for longer procedures. Nasal insufflation of oxygen is recommended.     

Experimentelle Untersuchungen zur optischen Kommunikation bei im Zoo gehaltenen Schabracken- und Flachlandtapiren (Tapirus indicus und Tapirus terrestris)

Until now, unlike their relatives, rhinos and horses tapirs have received considerably less attention in studies about communication. Therefore, it was the aim of this study to test which stimuli contain optical information for tapirs. For this purpose, the reactions of tapirs on optical stimuli (posters with edited tapir silhouettes) were examined. Research visits took place at the zoos of Berlin, Dortmund, Heidelberg, Munich, Nuremberg and Osnabrück during the year 2006. A total of 23 individuals, thereof 8 (5.3) Malayan tapirs (Tapirus indicus) and 15 (5.10) Lowland tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) attended the experiment. The results of the optical test with variously intense edited tapir silhouettes speak for the importance of the white ear rims as a family specific key stimulus. But that effect could not be amplified by adding a greater extent of white to the silhouette. Tapirs of both species reacted most strongly to the normal tapir silhouette followed by a silhouette without proboscis.     

Daily activity patterns and habitat use of the lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris) in the Atlantic Forest

We studied the daily activity pattern and habitat use of the lowland tapir Tapirus terrestris and their relationship with environmental and anthropic variables. We used photographic records of tapirs obtained during five camera-trap surveys conducted in three areas of the Atlantic Forest of Argentina that differ in their protection against poaching. The daily activity pattern was analyzed with circular statistics and linear regression. The effect of protection against poaching and environmental variables on habitat use of tapirs was analyzed using occupancy modeling. Tapirs were nocturnal all year round, with 89% of the records between 1800 h and 0700 h. The proportion of nocturnal records and the recording rate did not change with mean daily temperature. The daily activity pattern of tapirs was not affected by the sex of the individuals, the lunar cycle or the protection level of the area. The probability of detecting tapirs increased with the distance to the nearest access points for poachers and decreased with the abundance of bamboo in the understory and increasing trail width. The probability of use of an area by tapirs increased with increasing protection against poaching and distance to the nearest access points for poachers. These results suggest that poaching is one of the factors with significant effect on habitat use by tapirs but not on their daily activity patterns.     

Influence of extrinsic variables on activity and habitat selection of lowland tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) in the coastal sand plain shrub,southern Brazil

The objectives of this research were to: 1. evaluate the circadian activity patterns of lowland tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) throughout the seasons and 2. study the influence of moonlight, temperature and rainfall on the activity patterns and habitat selection of this species, in the coastal sand shrub in southern Brazil. From June 2005 to June 2006, eight tapirs were monitored in a large enclosure containing open and vegetation-covered areas, using four camera traps. Differences in activity patterns within seasons were found. Tapir predominately presented nocturnal-crepuscular activity; however, they differed in the winter, with cathemeral activity patterns. Covered areas were mostly used during periods of extreme temperatures, with less diurnal and more nocturnal activities within these areas, on hotter days. Activity in open areas mainly occurred during periods of intermediate temperatures, both during the day and in the night. Moonlight intensity did not influence nocturnal activities. On days of precipitation of 34 mm or more, there was no record of open-area activities, despite constant activity in covered-area.     

The key role of the largest extant Neotropical frugivore (Tapirus terrestris) in promoting admixture of plant genotypes across the landscape

The historical and contemporary loss of large‐bodied frugivores has disrupted many plant‐disperser mutualisms, with potentially profound consequences for plants. Although several aspects of seed dispersal by megafrugivores have already been examined, the role of these species in promoting seed‐mediated gene flow has remained unexplored. We evaluated the role of the Amazonian tapir (Tapirus terrestris), the largest Neotropical frugivore, in shaping plant genetic structure through seed‐mediated gene flow. We used microsatellites to analyze the genetic patterns of Syagrus romanzoffiana seedlings recruited in tapir latrines and around conspecific adult palms, the two sites where seeds and seedlings are most frequently found in this species. While the genetic diversity of seedlings was rather similar in both sites, the kinship structure was substantially weaker in latrines. Most seedlings recruited around adult palms were half‐ or full‐sibs originating from those adults. In contrast, seedlings recruited in latrines came from several (>5, on average) contributing mothers other than the nearest adult (95%) and were mostly non‐sibs (72%). Kinship patterns indicated that tapir‐mediated dispersal promotes the admixture of genotypes across space. Also, our results suggested that genetic diversity and the number of contributing mothers in latrines increase with the number of fruiting adults visited by tapirs before defecating and with the accumulation of feces over time. We provide evidence of the relevance of tapirs in mobilizing maternal progenies (and genotypes) across the landscape and recruiting clusters of unrelated seedlings. This study suggests a key role for plant–megafrugivore interactions in seed‐mediated gene flow and emphasizes the importance of preserving such mutualisms.     

Foraging impacts of Asian megafauna on tropical rain forest structure and biodiversity

Megaherbivores are known to influence the structure, composition, and diversity of vegetation. In Central Africa, forest elephants act as ecological filters by breaking tree saplings and stripping them of foliage. Much less is known about impacts of megafauna on Southeast Asian rain forests. Here, we ask whether herbivory by Asian megafauna has impacts analogous to those of African forest elephants. To answer this, we studied forest (1) structure, (2) composition, (3) diversity, and (4) tree scars in Belum and Krau, two protected areas of Peninsular Malaysia, and compared the results with those obtained in African forests. Elephants are abundant in Belum but have been absent in Krau since 1993. We found that stem density and diversity, especially of tree saplings, were higher in Krau than in Belum. Palms and other monocots were also more abundant in Krau. In Belum, however, small monocots (<1 m tall) were very abundant but larger ones (>1 m tall) were virtually absent, suggesting size‐selective removal. The frequency of stem‐break scars was equal at Belum and Krau but less than in Central Africa and greater than in the Peruvian Amazon where tapirs are the only megafauna. Pigs and tapirs could also contribute to the high frequency of tree scars recorded in Malaysian forests. Forest‐dwelling elephants in Asia seem to have a reduced impact on tree saplings compared to African forest elephants, but a very strong impact on monocots.     

Densidad Poblacional y Disponibilidad de Híbitat de la Danta de Montaña (Tapirus pinchaque) en los Andes Centrales de Colombia1

Population density of Tapirus pinchaque was estimated in 7000 ha Parque Nacional Natural Los Nevados in the central Andes of Colombia. Eight variables were measured in 110 left rear foot prints of the mountain tapir: total length and width, and length and width of the three toes. This information was analyzed with Cluster Analysis by means of UPGMA and Euclidean distance using the scores obtained by means of a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) using the eight variables. Habitat availability was measured in 147,000 ha using aerial photographs taken during the 1950s and 1980s. The results of the cluster analysis showed that there are between 11 and 15 individuals, for a mean density of one individual for each 551 ± 85 ha. The measurements of forest cover in the 147000 ha showed that habitat availability for the mountain tapir (montane forests and forestry plantations) increased 18l4lha from the 1950s to the 1980s. This increment in forest cover seems to have a positive effect on the local population size of T. pinchaque, since in areas previously covered by pastures, there are now secondary forests where tapirs tracks and feces can be found.     

Effect of biological pretreatment with Trametes hirsuta yj9 on enzymatic hydrolysis of corn stover

In this study, a newly isolated Trametes hirsuta yj9 was used to pretreat corn stover in order to enhance enzymatic digestibility. T. hirsuta yj9 preferentially degraded lignin to be as high as 71.49% after 42-day pretreatment. Laccase and xylanase was the major ligninolytic and hydrolytic enzyme, respectively and filter paper activity (FPA) increased gradually with prolonged pretreatment time. Sugar yields increased significantly after pretreatment with T. hirsuta yj9, reaching an enzymatic digestibility of 73.99% after 42 days of pretreatment. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed significant structural changes in pretreated corn stover, the surface of pretreated corn stover became increasingly coarse, the gaps between cellulose fibers were visible, and many pores were developed. Correlation analysis showed that sugar yields were inversely proportional to the lignin contents, less related to cellulose and hemicellulose contents.     

免疫荧光法显示贝居腹盾吸虫肌肉神经组织的实验研究

从背角无齿蚌(Anodonta woodiana)围心腔内检获自然感染的贝居腹盾吸虫(Aspidogaster conchicola),根据虫体内睾丸、卵巢、子宫及卵黄腺4种生殖器官的发育程度,将所获虫体分为幼虫组和成虫组,所有虫体用4%甲醛固定后,分别采用鬼笔环肽染色法和乙酰化微管蛋白免疫组织化学法显示贝居腹盾吸虫成虫和幼虫的肌肉纤维和神经纤维,使用激光共聚焦显微镜观察。结果显示,鬼笔环肽荧光染色的贝居腹盾吸虫成虫较幼虫肌肉组织更为发达,口周围、盾盘附着器、子宫末段及阴茎囊肌肉纤维分布较为密集。乙酰化微管蛋白荧光染色的贝居腹盾吸虫成虫较幼虫神经网络更为复杂,在部分生殖器官如子宫末段、阴茎囊和睾丸部位存在神经纤维。双重染色结果显示,该吸虫不同器官上的肌肉纤维分布与神经纤维的分布相互吻合。该结果提示,贝居腹盾吸虫可能通过神经系统对其肌肉活动进行调控。     

Electrical activity and structural correlates of giant nerve fibers in Kuruma shrimp (Penaeus japonicus)

Morphology and recordings of electrical activity of Kuruma shrimp (Penaeus japonicus) giant medullated nerve fibers were carried out. A pair of giant fibers with external diameter of about 120 μ and 10 μ in myelin thickness were found in the ventral nerve cord. The diameter of the axon is about 10 μ. Thus there is a wide gap between the axon and the external myelin sheath. Each axon is doubly coated directly by Schwann cells and indirectly by the myelin sheath layer which is produced by those Schwann cells. Impulse conduction velocities of these giant fibers showed a range between 90–210 m/sec at about 22°C. Large action potentials (up to 113 mV, rise time of 0.16–0.3 msec, maximum rate of rise of 650–1250 V/sec, half decay time of 0.2–0.3 msec, maximum rate of fall of 250–450 V/sec and total duration of less than 1.5 msec) could be obtained by inserting microelectrodes or by longitudinal insertion of 25 μ diameter capillary electrodes into the gap but no DC-potential difference was observed across the myelin sheath. Transmyelin electrical parameters were very favorable for fast impulse conduction: myelin resistance of 3 × 10⁴ Ω cm²; time constant of 0.38 msec; myelin capacitance of 1.35 × 10^?8 F/cm²; gap fluid resistivity of 23 Ω cm. The existence of nodes of Ranvier could not be demonstrated morphologically, but electrophysiological evidence suggests that a type of saltatory conduction occurs in these giant fibers.     

Brazilian Tapir Density in the Pantanal: A Comparison of Systematic Camera-Trapping and Line-Transect Surveys

The density of Brazilian tapirs ( Tapirus terrestris) was studied in the northeastern part of the Pantanal wetlands of Brazil using two simultaneous and independent methods: (1) systematic camera trapping combined with capture–recapture analysis, with camera traps spaced 1 km apart and distributed over 54 km²; and (2) line-transect sampling using an array of 12 linear transects, from 3.8 to 7.2 km long, covering the principal open and forest habitat types across the entire 1063 km² SESC Pantanal Reserve. The two methods yielded conservative density estimates of 0.58 ± 0.11 tapirs/km² (camera trapping) and 0.55 (95% CI 0.30–1.01) tapirs/km² (line transects). The study suggests that certain Pantanal habitats and sites can sustain relatively high population densities of tapirs when these animals are protected from hunting. Further testing of the camera-trapping methodology as applied to tapirs is required, particularly focusing on extending the survey period. As it represents a relatively rapid method for estimating population density, in comparison to line-transect surveys, and as it generates information simultaneously on multiple species that are conservation priorities, we recommend that camera-trapping surveys be applied more widely across a variety of Pantanal habitats and land-use categories in order to confirm the value of the vast 140,000 km² wilderness region for this vulnerable species.     

Genetic variability and population differentiation in captive baird's Tapirs (Tapirus bairdii)

The objectives of this study were to assess the level of genetic variability and population differentiation within captive populations of an endangered large mammal, Baird's tapir (Tapirus bairdii). We genotyped 37 captive animals from North American (NA) and Central American (CA) zoos and conservation ranches using six polymorphic microsatellite loci. Standard indices of genetic variability (allelic richness and diversity, and heterozygosity) were estimated and compared between captive populations, and between captive and wild population samples. In addition, we evaluated levels of population differentiation using Weir and Cockerham's version of Wright's F-statistics. The results indicate that the NA and CA captive populations of Baird's tapirs have retained levels of genetic variability similar to that measured in a wild population. However, inbreeding coefficients estimated from the molecular data indicate that the CA captive population is at increased risk of losing genetic variability due to inbreeding. Despite this, estimated levels of population differentiation indicate limited divergence of the CA captive population from the wild population. Careful management appears to have kept inbreeding coefficients low in the NA captive population; however, population differentiation levels indicate that the NA population has experienced increased divergence from wild populations due to a founder effect and isolation. Based on these results, we conclude that intermittent exchanges of Baird's tapirs between the NA and CA captive populations will benefit both populations by increasing genetic variability and effective population size, while reducing inbreeding and divergence from wild populations. Zoo Biol 23:521–531, 2004. © 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Electrospun Ultrafine Fibers from Black Bean Protein Concentrates and Polyvinyl Alcohol

In this study, ultrafine fibers were produced from black bean protein concentrates (BPCs) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) by electrospinning. The BPC was denatured under acidic (pH 2) or basic (pH 11) conditions. Polymer solutions containing different PVA concentrations (11% or 21%, w/v) and different BPC: PVA ratios (50:50 or 75:25, v/v) were used for fiber production. The electrical conductivity and rheological properties of the fiber-forming solutions were evaluated, as well as the morphology, size distribution, infrared spectrum, and thermal properties of the electrospun fibers. The fibers showed a homogeneous morphology and diameters ranging from 115 to 541 nm. Fibers from the solution containing BPC denatured at pH 11, 11% PVA, and 75:25 (v/v) BPC: PVA presented the lowest diameter, and those from BPC denatured at pH 2 had less beads than the fibers obtained from BPC denatured at pH 11. The solution formulation affected the thermal properties of the fibers, with weight loss increases ranging from 39.0% to 60.9%. The polymeric solutions containing PVA and BPC (whether denatured under basic or acidic conditions) resulted in ultrafine electrospun fibers with highly favorable characteristics that could potentially be used for the encapsulation of bioactive compounds and food applications.