α-Actinin-4 Enhances Colorectal Cancer Cell Invasion by Suppressing Focal Adhesion Maturation

α-Actinins (ACTNs) are known to crosslink actin filaments at focal adhesions in migrating cells. Among the four isoforms of mammalian ACTNs, ACTN1 and ACTN4 are ubiquitously expressed. Recently, ACTN4 was reported to enhance cancer cell motility, invasion, and metastasis. However, the mechanism by which ACTN4 drives these malignant phenotypes remains unclear. Here, we show that ACTN4, but not ACTN1, induces the formation of immature focal adhesions in DLD-1 cells, leading to the rapid turnover of focal adhesions. Interestingly, zyxin (ZYX) assembly to focal adhesions was markedly decreased in ACTN4-expressing DLD-1 cells, while the recruitment of paxillin (PAX) occurred normally. On the other hand, in ACTN1-expressing DLD-1 cells, PAX and ZYX were normally recruited to focal adhesions, suggesting that ACTN4 specifically impairs focal adhesion maturation by inhibiting the recruitment of ZYX to focal complexes. Using purified recombinant proteins, we found that ZYX binding to ACTN4 was defective under conditions where ZYX binding to ACTN1 was observed. Furthermore, Matrigel invasion of SW480 cells that express high endogenous levels of ACTN4 protein was inhibited by ectopic expression of ACTN1. Altogether, our results suggest that ZYX defective binding to ACTN4, which occupies focal adhesions instead of ACTN1, induces the formation of immature focal adhesions, resulting in the enhancement of cell motility and invasion.     

Different phenotypes of colon carcinoma cells interacting with endothelial cells: role of E-selectin and ultrastructural data

Adhesion molecules are intimately involved in the process of tumour progression. Among them, E-selectin is an inducible endothelial cell adhesion molecule that plays a role in the interactions of neoplastic cells with the endothelium. These interactions are required for the trans-endothelial migration of tumour cells that leads to the growth at the new sites. Since the detailed events in the early phase of metastasis still remain poorly defined, our study has undertaken an electron-microscopic analysis of the interactions of human colon carcinoma cells with endothelial cells as well as an analysis of the effect of recombinant purified E-selectin in the cell signalling involved in colon cancer cell malignant phenotype. Results revealed that SW480 and T84 colon cancer cell lines show different features, different adhesion kinetics, a different cytoskeletal organization, and a different tyrosine phosphorylation pattern when seeded on an endothelial cell monolayer or recombinant E-selectin. In particular T84 cancer cells adhere more efficiently to the E-selectin and this interaction is associated with pronounced morphological changes, actin redistribution and filopodial processes, and an increase in tyrosine phosphorylation of different proteins. These data support the hypothesis that E-selectin ligand is not only a cell-cell adhesion molecule but also initiates a signalling transduction pathway inside the cells.     

Tropomyosin isoform modulation of focal adhesion structure and cell migration

Orderly cell migration is essential for embryonic development, efficient wound healing and a functioning immune system and the dysregulation of this process leads to a number of pathologies. The speed and direction of cell migration is critically dependent on the structural organization of focal adhesions in the cell. While it is well established that contractile forces derived from the acto-myosin filaments control the structure and growth of focal adhesions, how this may be modulated to give different outcomes for speed and persistence is not well understood. The tropomyosin family of actin-associating proteins are emerging as important modulators of the contractile nature of associated actin filaments. The multiple non-muscle tropomyosin isoforms are differentially expressed between tissues and across development and are thought to be major regulators of actin filament functional specialization. In the present study we have investigated the effects of two splice variant isoforms from the same α-tropomyosin gene, TmBr1 and TmBr3, on focal adhesion structure and parameters of cell migration. These isoforms are normally switched on in neuronal cells during differentiation and we find that exogenous expression of the two isoforms in undifferentiated neuronal cells has discrete effects on cell migration parameters. While both isoforms cause reduced focal adhesion size and cell migration speed, they differentially effect actin filament phenotypes and migration persistence. Our data suggests that differential expression of tropomyosin isoforms may coordinate acto-myosin contractility and focal adhesion structure to modulate cell speed and persistence.Key words: focal adhesion, tropomyosin, actin, migration, persistence, speed, mesenchymal     

Role of Integrins and Evidence for two Distinct Mechanisms Mediating Human Colorectal Carcinoma Cell Interaction with Peritoneal Mesothelial Cells and Extracellular Matrix

Peritoneal carcinomatosis involves a series of events including tumor cell interactions with mesothelial cells and the extracellular matrix (ECM). We have studied the adhesive and invasive properties of four human colorectal carcinoma cell lines (Co115, HT29, SW480, SW620) confronted in vitro with a human mesothelial cell monolayer or with the ECM proteins collagen IV, laminin-1, fibronectin, tenascin-C and vitronectin. Quantitation was achieved following staining of tumor cells with the calcein-AM fluorescent dye. We found that all four cell lines rapidly adhered to a mesothelial cell monolayer. This adhesion event was not inhibitable by anti-integrin and anti-CD44 antibodies. Following initial attachment, the SW480 and SW620 cells invaded the mesothelial cell monolayer more aggressively than HT29 and Col 15 cells. All cell lines adhered to ECM proteins with each one exhibiting an individual adhesion pattern. Adhesion to matrix was completely integrin-dependent. When tested in an invasion assay, HT29 and Co115 cells crossed Matrigel-coated filters while SW480 and SW620 cells did not. This invasion was inhibited by anti-β1 integrin antibodies. Taken together, our results demonstrate that the initial colorectal tumor cell—mesothelial cell interaction occurs through an integrin-independent mechanism while adhesion to matrix proteins and invasion through Matrigel are integrin-dependent events. Furthermore, the different invasive capacity of SW480 and SW620 versus HT29 and Co115 cells upon interaction with a mesothelial cell monolayer or Matrigel suggests that these two invasion events may be mediated by distinct mechanisms.     

Role of Integrins and Evidence for two Distinct Mechanisms Mediating Human Colorectal Carcinoma Cell Interaction with Peritoneal Mesothelial Cells and Extracellular Matrix

Peritoneal carcinomatosis involves a series of events including tumor cell interactions with mesothelial cells and the extracellular matrix (ECM). We have studied the adhesive and invasive properties of four human colorectal carcinoma cell lines (Co115, HT29, SW480, SW620) confronted in vitro with a human mesothelial cell monolayer or with the ECM proteins collagen IV, laminin-1, fibronectin, tenascin-C and vitronectin. Quantitation was achieved following staining of tumor cells with the calcein-AM fluorescent dye. We found that all four cell lines rapidly adhered to a mesothelial cell monolayer. This adhesion event was not inhibitable by anti-integrin and anti-CD44 antibodies. Following initial attachment, the SW480 and SW620 cells invaded the mesothelial cell monolayer more aggressively than HT29 and Col 15 cells. All cell lines adhered to ECM proteins with each one exhibiting an individual adhesion pattern. Adhesion to matrix was completely integrin-dependent. When tested in an invasion assay, HT29 and Co115 cells crossed Matrigel-coated filters while SW480 and SW620 cells did not. This invasion was inhibited by anti-β1 integrin antibodies. Taken together, our results demonstrate that the initial colorectal tumor cell—mesothelial cell interaction occurs through an integrin-independent mechanism while adhesion to matrix proteins and invasion through Matrigel are integrin-dependent events. Furthermore, the different invasive capacity of SW480 and SW620 versus HT29 and Co115 cells upon interaction with a mesothelial cell monolayer or Matrigel suggests that these two invasion events may be mediated by distinct mechanisms.     

沉默FOXQ1可逆转SW480细胞的上皮-间质转化

FOXQ1是FOX家族的的重要成员之一,其参与了多种人类肿瘤的上皮间质转化(epithelial- mesenchymal transition,EMT).本研究设计合成了FOXQ1基因的shRNA（short hairpin RNA）,用此转染SW480细胞,通过显微镜观察细胞形态,Transwell小室、细胞黏附试验检测转移能力及黏附能力,以探索FOXQ1与结直肠癌细胞EMT的关系.结果显示,沉默FOXQ1后,SW480细胞顶底极性及细胞间紧密连接增加,侵袭、迁移的细胞数目减少,同种黏附能力增加,异种黏附能力降低.进一步的机制研究表明,沉默FOXQ1基因可以导致SW480细胞的上皮标志因子E-cadherin表达显著增高,而间质细胞标志因子N-cadherin、Vimentin及MMP2表达均降低.以上结果表明,沉默FOXQ1基因可以逆转SW480细胞EMT,其机制可能与E-cadherin的上调和N cadherin、Vimentin、MMP2的下调有关,这为进一步研究FOXQ1在结直肠癌发生发展中的作用提供实验基础.     

Plectin deposition at podosome rings requires myosin contractility

Metalloproteinase-dependent tissue invasion requires the formation of podosomes and invadopodia for localized matrix degradation. Actin cytoskeleton remodeling via Arp2/3-mediated actin polymerization is essential for podosome formation, and dynamic microtubules have an important role in maintaining podosome turnover in macrophages and osteoclasts. Little is known, however, about the involvement of the intermediate filament cytoskeleton in formation, stabilization, and turnover of podosomes. Here we show that vimentin intermediate filaments colocalize with the early sites of podosome formation at the stress fiber - focal adhesion interface in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells, but do not directly contribute to podosome formation, or stabilization. In unstimulated A7r5 cells the cytolinker protein plectin poorly colocalized with vimentin and the microdomains, but following induction by phorbol ester accumulated in the rings that surround the podosomes. In plectin-deficient A7r5 cells actin stress fiber remodelling is reduced in response to PDBu, and small podosomes remain localized at stable actin stress fibres. Pharmacological inhibition of actomyosin contractility by blebbistatin leads to an aberrant localization of podosomes away from the cell periphery and induces failure of plectin to surround the outer perimeter of these invasive adhesions. Taken together, we conclude that plectin is involved in growth and maturation of podosomes by reducing focal adhesion and stress fiber turnover, and that actomyosin-dependent contractility is required for the peripheral localization and specific deposition of plectin at the podosome rings.     

Effect of overexpression of β- and γ-actin isoforms on actin cytoskeleton organization and migration of human colon cancer cells

Actins are eukaryotic proteins, which are involved in diverse cellular functions including muscle contraction, cell motility, adhesion and maintenance of cell shape. Cytoplasmic actin isoforms β and γ are ubiquitously expressed and essential for cell functioning. However, their unique contributions are not very well understood. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of β- and γ-actin overexpression on the migration capacity and actin cytoskeleton organization of human colon adenocarcinoma BE cells. In cells overexpressing β- or γ-actin, distinct cytoskeletal actin rearrangements were observed under the laser scanning confocal microscope. Overexpressed actins localized at the submembranous region of the cell body, especially near to the leading edge and on the tips of pseudopodia. The cells transfected with plasmids containing cDNA for β- or γ-actin were characterized by increased migration and invasion capacities. However, the migration velocity was statistically significantly higher only in the case of γ-actin overexpressing cells. In conclusion, the increased level of β- or γ-actin leads to actin cytoskeletal remodeling followed by an increase in migration and invasion capacities of human colon BE cells. These data suggest that expression of both actin isoforms has an impact on cancer cell motility, with the subtle predominance of γ-actin, and may influence invasiveness of human colon cancer.     

A role for cyclic-GMP dependent protein kinase in anoikis

Anoikis is an essential process in which a loss of adhesion to the substratum alters intracellular signaling pathways that lead to apoptosis. Using phosphorylation of vasodilator stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP) as an indicator of cGMP-dependent protein kinase (PKG) activity in vivo, it was found that suspension of the colon epithelial cell line (CCD841) leads to rapid and transient activation of PKG that lasted several hours. The colon carcinoma lines SW480 and SW620 do not express endogenous PKG, but exogenously expressed PKG was similarly activated upon cell suspension. To determine whether PKG has a role in apoptosis following cell suspension, poly-ADP ribose polymerase (PARP) cleavage and propidium iodide staining were measured. After 24 h in suspension it was found that approximately 50% of CCD841 cells exhibited apoptosis, whereas apoptosis was not detected in either of the colon carcinoma cell lines. Inhibition of type 1 PKG by expression of a dominant negative PKG construct (G1alphaR-GFP), or by incubation with the PKG inhibitor peptide DT-2, blocked apoptosis in suspended CCD841 cells by approximately 50%. Furthermore, expression of exogenous PKG in SW620 and SW480 cells conferred partial sensitivity anoikis. Taken together these findings indicate that PKG has an important role in the induction of apoptosis following suspension of normal colon epithelial cells, and loss of PKG expression in colon tumor cells may contribute to resistance to anoikis.     

Myosin phosphatase targeting subunit 1 affects cell migration by regulating myosin phosphorylation and actin assembly

Myosin II plays important roles in many contractile-like cell functions, including cell migration, adhesion, and retraction. Myosin II is activated by regulatory light chain (RLC) phosphorylation whereas RLC dephosphorylation by myosin light chain phosphatase containing a myosin phosphatase targeting subunit (MYPT1) leads to myosin inactivation. HeLa cells contain MYPT1 in addition to a newly identified human variant 2 containing an internal deletion. RLC dephosphorylation, cell migration, and adhesion were inhibited when either or both MYPT1 isoforms were knocked down by RNA interference. RLC was highly phosphorylated (60%) when both isoforms were suppressed by siRNA treatment relative to control cells (10%) with serum-starvation and ROCK inhibition. Prominent stress fibers and focal adhesions were associated with the enhanced RLC phosphorylation. The reintroduction of MYPT1 or variant 2 in siRNA-treated cells decreased stress fibers and focal adhesions. MYPT1 knockdown also led to an increase of F-actin relative to G-actin in HeLa cells. The myosin inhibitor blebbistatin did not inhibit this effect, indicating MYPT1 likely affects actin assembly independent of RLC phosphorylation. Proper expression of MYPT1 or variant 2 is critical for RLC phosphorylation and actin assembly, thus maintaining normal cellular functions by simultaneously controlling cytoskeletal architecture and actomyosin activation.     

Endotoxin/lipopolysaccharide activates NF-kappa B and enhances tumor cell adhesion and invasion through a beta 1 integrin-dependent mechanism

Beta(1) integrins play a crucial role in supporting tumor cell attachment to and invasion into the extracellular matrix. Endotoxin/LPS introduced by surgery has been shown to enhance tumor metastasis in a murine model. Here we show the direct effect of LPS on tumor cell adhesion and invasion in extracellular matrix proteins through a beta(1) integrin-dependent pathway. The human colorectal tumor cell lines SW480 and SW620 constitutively expressed high levels of the beta(1) subunit, whereas various low levels of alpha(1), alpha(2), alpha(4), and alpha(6) expression were detected. SW480 and SW620 did not express membrane-bound CD14; however, LPS in the presence of soluble CD14 (sCD14) significantly up-regulated beta(1) integrin expression; enhanced tumor cell attachment to fibronectin, collagen I, and laminin; and strongly promoted tumor cell invasion through the Matrigel. Anti-beta(1) blocking mAbs (4B4 and 6S6) abrogated LPS- plus sCD14-induced tumor cell adhesion and invasion. Furthermore, LPS, when combined with sCD14, resulted in NF-kappaB activation in both SW480 and SW620 cells. Inhibition of the NF-kappaB pathway significantly attenuated LPS-induced up-regulation of beta(1) integrin expression and prevented tumor cell adhesion and invasion. These results provide direct evidence that although SW480 and SW620 cells do not express membrane-bound CD14, LPS in the presence of sCD14 can activate NF-kappaB, up-regulate beta(1) integrin expression, and subsequently promote tumor cell adhesion and invasion. Moreover, LPS-induced tumor cell attachment to and invasion through extracellular matrix proteins is beta(1) subunit-dependent.     

The carboxy-terminus of the formin FMNL1ɣ bundles actin to potentiate adenocarcinoma migration

The formin family of proteins contributes to spatiotemporal control of actin cytoskeletal rearrangements during motile cell activities. The FMNL subfamily exhibits multiple mechanisms of linear actin filament formation and organization. Here we report novel actin-modifying functions of FMNL1 in breast adenocarcinoma migration models. FMNL1 is required for efficient cell migration and its three isoforms exhibit distinct localization. Suppression of FMNL1 protein expression results in a significant impairment of cell adhesion, migration, and invasion. Overexpression of FMNL1ɣ, but not FMNL1β or FMNL1α, enhances cell adhesion independent of the FH2 domain and FMNL1ɣ rescues migration in cells depleted of all three endogenous isoforms. While FMNL1ɣ inhibits actin assembly in vitro, it facilitates bundling of filamentous actin independent of the FH2 domain. The unique interactions of FMNL1ɣ with filamentous actin provide a new understanding of formin domain functions and its effect on motility of diverse cell types suggest a broader role than previously realized.     

Comparative label-free LC-MS/MS analysis of colorectal adenocarcinoma and metastatic cells treated with 5-fluorouracil

A label-free mass spectrometric strategy was used to examine the effect of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) on the primary and metastatic colon carcinoma cell lines, SW480 and SW620, with and without treatment. 5-FU is the most common chemotherapeutic treatment for colon cancer. Pooled biological replicates were analyzed by nanoLC-MS/MS and protein quantification was determined via spectral counting. Phenotypic and proteomic changes were evident and often similar in both cell lines. The SW620 cells were more resistant to 5-FU treatment, with an IC(50) 2.7-fold higher than that for SW480. In addition, both cell lines showed pronounced abundance changes in pathways relating to antioxidative stress response and cell adhesion remodeling due to 5-FU treatment. For example, the detoxification enzyme NQO1 was increased with treatment in both cell lines, while disparate members of the peroxiredoxin family, PRDX2 or PRDX5 and PRDX6, were elevated with 5-FU exposure in either SW480 or SW620, respectively. Cell adhesion-associated proteins CTNNB1 and RhoA showed decreased expression with 5-FU treatment in both cell lines. The differential quantitative response in the proteomes of these patient-matched cell lines to drug treatment underscores the subtle molecular differences separating primary and metastatic cancer cells.     

RNF2 promotes the progression of colon cancer by regulating ubiquitination and degradation of IRF4

Ring finger protein 2 (RNF2), as a well-known E3 ligase, has an oncogenic role in various cancers. The role of RNF2 in colon cancer is still unknown. The aim of this work is to determine the biological role of RNF2 in colon cancer. We first examined the expression of RNF2 and interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF4) in colon cancer patients and colon cancer cell lines (SW480 and HCT116). Compared with normal tumor-adjacent tissues, RNF2 was up-regulated whereas IRF4 was down-regulated in the colon cancer tissues. RNF2 was also up-regulated in colon cancer cells with respect to human fetal colon epithelial cells. RNF2 overexpression enhanced the ability of proliferation, migration and invasion of SW480 cells, whereas RNF2 knockdown caused an opposite result in HCT116 cells. Furthermore, a tumor xenograft model was constructed to verify the impact of RNF2 overexpressed-SW480 cells on tumor growth. RNF2 up-regulation elevated Ki-67 proliferation index, accelerated the growth of tumor tissues, and led to severe colon tissue damage in the tumor xenograft mice. In addition, RNF2 interacted with IRF4, and repressed IRF4 protein expression. IRF4 was a substrate of RNF2, and RNF2 promoted the ubiquitination and degradation of IRF4. RNF2 overexpression increased the ability of proliferation, migration and invasion in SW480 cells by promoting the ubiquitination and degradation of IRF4. In conclusion, this work demonstrated that RNF2 promoted tumor growth in colon cancer by regulating ubiquitination and degradation of IRF4. Thus, RNF2 may be served as a potential therapeutic target for colon cancer.     

Pak1 and Pak2 mediate tumor cell invasion through distinct signaling mechanisms

Pak kinases are thought to play critical roles in cell migration and invasion. Here, we analyze the roles of Pak1 and Pak2 in breast carcinoma cell invasion using the transient transfection of small interfering RNA. We find that although both Pak1 and Pak2 contribute to breast carcinoma invasion stimulated by heregulin, these roles are mediated by distinct signaling mechanisms. Thus, whereas the depletion of Pak1 interferes with the heregulin-mediated dephosphorylation of cofilin, the depletion of Pak2 does not. The depletion of Pak1 also has a stronger inhibitory effect on lamellipodial protrusion than does the depletion of Pak2. Interestingly, Pak1 and Pak2 play opposite roles in regulating the phosphorylation of the myosin light chain (MLC). Whereas the depletion of Pak1 decreases phospho-MLC levels in heregulin-stimulated cells, the depletion of Pak2 enhances MLC phosphorylation. Consistent with their opposite effects on MLC phosphorylation, Pak1 and Pak2 differentially modulate focal adhesions. Pak2-depleted cells display an increase in focal adhesion size, whereas in Pak1-depleted cells, focal adhesions fail to mature. We also found that the depletion of Pak2, but not Pak1, enhances RhoA activity and that the inhibition of RhoA signaling in Pak2-depleted cells decreases MLC phosphorylation and restores cell invasion. In summary, this work presents the first comprehensive analysis of functional differences between the Pak1 and Pak2 isoforms.     

Cofilin-1 signaling mediates epithelial-mesenchymal transition by promoting actin cytoskeleton reorganization and cell-cell adhesion regulation in colorectal cancer cells

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is frequently a lethal disease because of metastasis. Actin cytoskeletal rearrangement is an essential step in cell migration during activation of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) program, which is associated with metastatic properties of cancer cells. Cofilin-1 protein modulates actin dynamics by promoting actin treadmilling, thereby driving membrane protrusion and cell migration and invasion. However, the role of cofilin-1 during EMT in CRC is unknown. Here, we show that cofilin-1 and p-cofilin-1 have distinct subcellular distribution in EMT cells, as determined by super-resolution microscopy images, indicating distinct roles in different areas of cells. Silenced cofilin-1 cells treated with TGF-β (siCofilin-1/TGF-β) evaded p-LIMK2-p-cofilin-1 status, leading to recovery of E-cadherin and claudin-3 at the cell-cell contact and their respective protein levels, actin reorganization, and decreased mesenchymal protein level. Furthermore, siCofilin-1/TGF-β cells exhibited decreased migration and invasion rates as well as MMP-2 and -9 activity and augmented focal adhesion size. The expression of an inactive phospho-cofilin-1 mimetic (S3E) reduced E-cadherin and claudin-3 in cell-cell contacts, reduced their protein levels, and increased vimentin protein. Based on our findings, we suggest that cofilin-1 is crucial to switching from epithelial to mesenchymal-like morphology and cell migration and invasion by regulating actin cytoskeleton organization through activation of RhoA-LIMK2-cofilin-1 signaling, impacting the cell-cell adhesion organization of colon cancer cells in EMT.     

The endocytic protein GRAF1 is directed to cell-matrix adhesion sites and regulates cell spreading

The rho GTPase-activating protein GTPase regulator associated with focal adhesion kinase-1 (GRAF1) remodels membranes into tubulovesicular clathrin-independent carriers (CLICs) mediating lipid-anchored receptor endocytosis. However, the cell biological functions of this highly prevalent endocytic pathway are unclear. In this article, we present biochemical and cell biological evidence that GRAF1 interacted with a network of endocytic and adhesion proteins and was found enriched at podosome-like adhesions and src-induced podosomes. We further demonstrate that these sites comprise microdomains of highly ordered lipid enriched in GRAF1 endocytic cargo. GRAF1 activity was upregulated in spreading cells and uptake via CLICs was concentrated at the leading edge of migrating cells. Depletion of GRAF1, which inhibits CLIC generation, resulted in profound defects in cell spreading and migration. We propose that GRAF1 remodels membrane microdomains at adhesion sites into endocytic carriers, facilitating membrane turnover during cell morphological changes.