连接蛋白家族,细胞间隙连接通讯与肿瘤抑制

目前,至少已发现编码间隙蛋白的基因－－连接蛋白家族的十个成员。它们的碱基顺序有高度同源性,结构相似,在组织细胞中的分布既有专一性,又有交叉性。连接蛋白基因的表达水平与间隙连接通讯功能的调变相关。在转化或肿瘤细胞中间隙连接通讯功能的丧失常伴随连接蛋白家族蛋白基因的表达,能够抑制肿瘤生长。连接蛋白基因可能是一个潜在的肿瘤抑制基因。     

性激素对生殖系统Cx43表达调控机制的研究进展

由连接蛋白43(connexin 43,Cx43)构成的细胞间间隙连接(gap junction,GJ)是介导细胞间直接的物质、能量交换及电、化学信号耦合的重要通路,其可保证细胞间功能活动的协调一致,在生殖系统细胞发育、分化及成熟等生理过程及功能活动中发挥非常重要的调控作用。性激素可在转录及翻译等层面调节生殖系统细胞Cx43的结构及表达,一方面通过核受体基因组机制调节Cx43基因的转录,另一方面通过非基因组快速信号传导通路机制调节Cx43的磷酸化水平,共同影响细胞间隙连接通讯(gap junction intracellular communication,GJIC),进一步干预生殖系统细胞的病理、生理过程及功能活动。近年来,性激素在心血管系统病生理状态下对连接蛋白调节的变化及机制研究较为成熟,而在子宫、卵巢等生殖器官中,对性激素通过调节连接蛋白及间隙连接进而影响细胞间信息流通的研究较少,其作用机制并不清晰。故本文结合近年来文献,综述性激素对生殖系统细胞Cx43表达及GJIC的调控机制的研究进展,旨在为今后深入地研究提供可行的思路。     

间隙连接蛋白Cx43在人胚肺和肺癌细胞表达的研究

细胞与细胞之间通过细胞膜上的间隙连接通道交换小分子和离子进行细胞间通讯,对细胞增殖分化调控和机体内环境稳定有重要作用。用间隙连接蛋白Ｃｘ４３ｃＤＮＡ探针Ｎｏｒｔｈｅｒｎ印迹杂交,Ｃｘ４３抗体免疫荧光染色和罗氏黄荧光染料传输方法检查,正常人胚肺细胞的Ｃｘ４３在ｍＲＮＡ和蛋白水平有高表达,Ｃｘ４３蛋白免疫荧光分布在间隙连接的部位,细胞间隙连接通讯功能明显。与正常相反,人肺癌ＰＧ系细胞Ｃｋ４３无论在ｍＲＮＡ或蛋白质水平都无表达,细胞通讯功能缺陷。结果表明Ｃｘ４３在培养的人胚肺细胞有功能性表达。人肺癌ＰＧ细胞通讯功能缺陷与Ｃｘ４３基因转录抑制有关。对Ｃｘ基因的抑癌基因性质进行讨论。     

癌细胞逆转过程中N-cadherin与间隙连接蛋白Cx43功能表达的关系

钙粘合蛋白 (N cadherin ,N cad)在人肺癌细胞的表达明显低于正常人肺细胞 .肺癌细胞的间隙连接通讯功能缺陷 ,连接蛋白Cx43表达抑制 .Cx43cDNA转染肺癌细胞的 4个阳性克隆其Cx43蛋白表达升高水平相近 ,但通讯功能有差别 ,与各克隆N cad的表达水平有正相关性 .N cad表达高的克隆Cx43在膜间隙连接的分布和通讯功能最明显 ,细胞分化改善 ,在裸鼠体内生长抑制 (抑制率 75 % )有显著性 .反之N cad表达低的克隆Cx43在膜间隙连接不明显 ,细胞通讯功能弱 ,恶性表型无逆转 .提示N cad与Cx43转录后表达过程的调节密切相关 ,两者介导的粘合和通讯功能有协同促进肺癌细胞逆转的作用 .     

间隙连接及其调控因素

概述了间隙连接的结构和功能,以及pH值、电压、生长因子对它的调节作用.间隙连接作为相邻细胞间信息物质通道,起着传递细胞信息,协调细胞群体功能的作用,但是其形成过程以及对机体生理功能影响的研究有待进一步深入.pH值降低可引起间隙连接通道的关闭,电压升高降低通道的导电性,生长因子可通过影响间隙连接蛋白的形成和降解、促使间隙连接蛋白磷酸化调节其通透性.     

间隙连接蛋白43基因在斑马鱼和金鱼中的表达模式分析

间隙连接蛋白43(connexin43,Cx43)是间隙连接蛋白家族的成员之一,在多种组织和细胞类型上广泛表达,参与体内平衡、胚胎发育、细胞分化及生长等生理活动。现以斑马鱼(Danio rerio)和金鱼(Carassius auratus)为材料,运用RT-PCR方法检测了Cx43基因在其组织和胚胎发育中的表达模式。结果显示:在斑马鱼的组织中,Cx43基因在心脏中的表达量最高,而在肾脏和卵巢的表达量较低;在不同发育时期的胚胎中,Cx43基因在体色素期和出膜期中的表达量较高,而在胚胎发育早期的表达量相对较低。在金鱼组织中,Cx43基因在心脏中的表达量较高,而在鱼鳍和眼睛的表达量较低;在不同发育时期的胚胎中,Cx43基因表达模式基本上与斑马鱼的12个时期相一致。研究表明,Cx43基因在鱼类不同组织和不同胚胎发育时期中可能行使不同的功能,但其具体的功能和机制还有待进一步研究。     

从遗传疾病看间隙连接研究的新进展

间隙连接(gap junction)由连接蛋白(con-nexin,Cx)构成,目前已有13种连接蛋白(表1),每一个蛋白是一个基因产物,它们组成一个高度相关的蛋白质家族。 所有的连接蛋白都有相同的分子构形,由四个跨膜区(M1—M4)、两个胞外环(E1—E2)、一个胞内环以及胞质NH_2和COOH末端构成(图1)。序列同源性集中在跨膜区和胞外     

间隙连接分子Cx43相关蛋白及其功能研究进展

间隙连接是细胞间直接进行信息交流的唯一膜通道结构。Cx43是构成间隙连接中分布最广、研究最多的间隙连接分子,目前运用免疫共沉淀、免疫荧光共定位、pull-down以及酵母双杂交等多种方法研究发现了众多的Cx43相关蛋白。这些蛋白通过与Cx43相互作用在间隙连接蛋白的组装、运输、膜定位,间隙连接通道的形成以及对间隙连接通讯的调控等一系列过程中均发挥十分重要的作用。本文就目前已经研究发现的Cx43相关蛋白及其最新的功能研究进展进行综述。     

真核基因的快速克隆及表达

以细胞间隙连接蛋白基因Cx26作为目的基因,通过T-A载体介导,构建真核表达重组载体pcDNA3.1( ) /Cx26,重组表达载体转染人鼻咽癌细胞株HNE1,表达Cx26间隙连接蛋白。     

Connexin31 相互作用蛋白筛选、证实与功能研究

筛选间隙连接蛋白 31 (connexin31 , Cx31) 相互作用蛋白并研究其在 Cx31 运输中的功能 . 运用制备的抗 Cx31 多克隆抗体免疫沉淀, SDS- 聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳分离,蛋白质条带回收,蛋白质胶块酶解,电喷雾 - 四极杆 - 飞行时间质谱分析,数据库扫描筛选可能相互作用蛋白,可能互作蛋白经免疫共沉淀、细胞免疫共定位等证实,确定 actin 为 Cx31 相互作用蛋白 . 用药物处理细胞,抑制 actin 的功能,观察 Cx31 定位与间隙连接通道的通透性,确定 actin 在 Cx31 运输中的功能 . 当药物抑制 actin 的功能时, Cx31 很少能到达细胞膜上形成间隙连接通道, Cx31 主要分布在胞质中;当药物抑制 tublin 的功能时, Cx31 能到达细胞膜上形成间隙连接通道,细胞免疫荧光实验显示间隙连接斑有增多的现象,但染料转移实验表明细胞膜上间隙连接通道并没有增加 . Actin 在 Cx31 运输至细胞膜上形成间隙连接通道的过程中具有重要作用 .     

The diversity of connexin genes encoding gap junctional proteins.

The multigene family of connexins is larger than previously anticipated. Ten different connexin homologous sequences have been characterized in the mouse genome, five of which are probably the mouse analogues of the known rat connexins26, -31, -32, -43, and -46. Since the additional 5 sequences have been isolated as cDNAs or hybridize specifically to distinct mRNA species, they most likely represent functional connexin genes. Since seven of the genomic connexin sequences have been shown to contain no intron in the coding sequence, this may apply to all mammalian connexin genes. Some of the structural features based on amino acid sequences deduced from cDNA or genomic sequences and the RNA expression pattern of the new connexins are compared with previously described connexins. The structural diversity of the connexin genes suggests that they fulfill different functions coordinated with, and perhaps required for, different programs of cellular differentiation.     

Heart and head defects in mice lacking pairs of connexins

Gene ablation studies in mice have revealed roles for gap junction proteins (connexins) in heart development. Of the 20 connexins in vertebrates, four are expressed in developing heart: connexin37 (Cx37), connexin40 (Cx40), connexin43 (Cx43), and connexin45 (Cx45). Although each cardiac connexin has a different pattern of expression, some heart cells coexpress multiple connexins during cardiac morphogenesis. Since different connexins could have overlapping functions, some developmental phenotypes may only become evident when more than one connexin is ablated. In this study, we interbred Cx40(-/-) and Cx43(-/-) mice to generate mice lacking both Cx40 and Cx43. Cx40(-/-)Cx43(-/-) mice die around embryonic day 12.5 (E12.5), much earlier than either Cx40(-/-) or Cx43(-/-) mice, and they exhibit malformed hearts with ventricles that are abnormally rotated, suggesting a looping defect. Some Cx40(-/-)Cx43(-/-) animals also develop head defects characteristic of exencephaly. In addition, we examined mice lacking both Cx40 and Cx37 and found a high incidence of atrial and ventricular septal defects at birth. These results provide further evidence for the importance of gap junctions in embryonic development. Moreover, ablating different pairs of cardiac connexins results in distinct heart defects, suggesting both common and unique functions for Cx40, Cx43, and Cx37 during cardiac morphogenesis.     

Channel-independent influence of connexin 43 on cell migration

In this review we focus on the role of connexins, especially of Cx43, as modulators of migration - a fundamental process in embryogenesis and in physiologic functions of the adult organism. This impact of connexins is partly mediated by their function as intercellular channels but an increasing number of studies support the view that at least part of the effects are truly independent of the channel function. The channel-independent function comprises extrinsic guidance of migrating cells due to connexin mediated cell adhesion as well as intracellular processes. Cx43 has been shown to exert effects on migration by interfering with receptor signalling, cytoskeletal remodelling and tubulin dynamics. These effects are mainly dependent on the presence of the carboxyl tail of Cx43. The molecular basis of this channel-independent connexin function is still not yet fully understood but early results open an exciting view towards new functions of connexins in the cell. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The Communicating junctions, composition, structure and characteristics.     

Functional redundancy and compensation among members of gap junction protein families?

Gap junctions are intercellular conduits for small molecules made up by protein subunits called connexins. A large number of connexin genes were found in mouse and man, and most cell types express several connexins, lending support to the view that redundancy and compensation among family members exist. This review gives an overview of the current knowledge on redundancy and functional compensation - or lack thereof. It takes into account the different properties of connexin subunits which comprise gap junctional intercellular channels, but also the compatibility of connexins in gap junctions. Most insight has been gained by the investigation of mice deficient for one or more connexins and transgenic mice with functional replacement of one connexin gene by another. Most single deficient mice show phenotypical alterations limited to critical developmental time points or to specific organs and tissues, while mice doubly deficient for connexins expressed in the same cell type usually show more severe phenotypical alterations. Replacement of a connexin by another connexin in some cases gave rise to rescue of phenotypical alterations of connexin deficiencies, which were restricted to specific tissues. In many tissues, connexin substitution did not restore phenotypical alterations of connexin deficiencies, indicating that connexins are specialized in function. In some cases, fatal consequences arose from the replacement. The current consensus gained from such studies is that redundancy and compensation among connexins exists at least to a limited extent. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The Communicating junctions, composition, structure and characteristics.     

Formation of the gap junction nexus: binding partners for connexins.

Gap junctions are the morphological correlates of direct cell-cell communication and are formed of hexameric assemblies of gap junction proteins (connexins) into hemichannels (or connexons) provided by each coupled cell. Gap junction channels formed by each of the connexin subtypes (of which there are as many as 20) display different properties, which have been attributed to differences in amino acid sequences of gating domains of the connexins. Recent studies additionally indicate that connexin proteins interact with other cellular components to form a protein complex termed the Nexus. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding the protein-protein interactions involving of connexin proteins and proposes hypothesized functions for these interactions.     

Gap junction- and hemichannel-independent actions of connexins

Connexins have been known to be the protein building blocks of gap junctions and mediate cell-cell communication. In contrast to the conventional dogma, recent evidence suggests that in addition to forming gap junction channels, connexins possess gap junction-independent functions. One important gap junction-independent function for connexins is to serve as the major functional component for hemichannels, the un-apposed halves of gap junctions. Hemichannels, as independent functional units, play roles that are different from that of gap junctions in the cell. The other functions of connexins appear to be gap junction- and hemichannel-independent. Published studies implicate the latter functions of connexins in cell growth, differentiation, tumorigenicity, injury, and apoptosis, although the mechanistic aspects of these actions remain largely unknown. In this review, gap junction- and hemichannel-independent functions of connexins are summarized, and the molecular mechanisms underlying these connexin functions are speculated and discussed.     

Connexin phosphorylation as a regulatory event linked to gap junction internalization and degradation

Gap junction proteins, connexins, are dynamic polytopic membrane proteins that exhibit unprecedented short half-lives of only a few hours. Consequently, it is well accepted that in addition to channel gating, gap junctional intercellular communication is regulated by connexin biosynthesis, transport and assembly as well as the formation and removal of gap junctions from the cell surface. At least nine members of the 20-member connexin family are known to be phosphorylated en route or during their assembly into gap junctions. For some connexins, notably Cx43, evidence exists that phosphorylation may trigger its internalization and degradation. In recent years it has become apparent that the mechanisms underlying the regulation of connexin turnover are quite complex with the identification of many connexin binding molecules, a multiplicity of protein kinases that phosphorylate connexins and the involvement of both lysosomal and proteasomal pathways in degrading connexins. This paper will review the evidence that connexin phosphorylation regulates, stimulates or triggers gap junction disassembly, internalization and degradation.     

Gap junction- and hemichannel-independent actions of connexins

Connexins have been known to be the protein building blocks of gap junctions and mediate cell-cell communication. In contrast to the conventional dogma, recent evidence suggests that in addition to forming gap junction channels, connexins possess gap junction-independent functions. One important gap junction-independent function for connexins is to serve as the major functional component for hemichannels, the un-apposed halves of gap junctions. Hemichannels, as independent functional units, play roles that are different from that of gap junctions in the cell. The other functions of connexins appear to be gap junction- and hemichannel-independent. Published studies implicate the latter functions of connexins in cell growth, differentiation, tumorigenicity, injury, and apoptosis, although the mechanistic aspects of these actions remain largely unknown. In this review, gap junction- and hemichannel-independent functions of connexins are summarized, and the molecular mechanisms underlying these connexin functions are speculated and discussed.     

Doubly mutant mice, deficient in connexin32 and -43, show normal prenatal development of organs where the two gap junction proteins are expressed in the same cells

The connexins are a family of proteins that form the intercellular membrane channels of gap junctions. Genes encoding 13 different rodent connexins have been cloned and characterized to date. Connexins vary both in their distribution among adult cell types and in the properties of the channels that they form. In order to explore the functional significance of connexin diversity, several mouse connexin-encoding genes have been disrupted by homologous recombination in embryonic stem cells. Although those experiments have illuminated specific physiological roles for individual connexins, the results have also raised the possibility that connexins may functionally compensate for one another in cells where they are coexpressed. In the present study, we have tested this hypothesis by interbreeding mice carrying null mutations in the genes (Gjb1 and Gja1) encoding connexin32 (beta 1 connexin) and connexin43 (alpha 1 connexin), respectively. We found that fetuses lacking both connexins survive to term but, as expected, the pups die soon thereafter from the cardiac abnormality caused by the absence of connexin43. A survey of the major organ systems of the doubly mutant fetuses, including the thyroid gland, developing teeth, and limbs where these two connexins are coexpressed, failed to reveal any morphological abnormalities not already seen in connexin43 deficient fetuses. Furthermore, the production of thyroxine by doubly mutant thyroids was confirmed by immunocytochemistry. We conclude that, at least as far as the prenatal period is concerned, the normal development of those three organs in fetuses lacking connexin43 cannot simply be explained by the additional presence of connexin32 and vice-versa. Either gap junctional coupling is dispensable in embryonic and fetal cells in which these two connexins are coexpressed, or coupling is provided by yet another connexin when both are absent.