Young,intact and nested retrotransposons are abundant in the onion and asparagus genomes

Background and Aims

Although monocotyledonous plants comprise one of the two major groups of angiosperms and include >65 000 species, comprehensive genome analysis has been focused mainly on the Poaceae (grass) family. Due to this bias, most of the conclusions that have been drawn for monocot genome evolution are based on grasses. It is not known whether these conclusions apply to many other monocots.

Methods

To extend our understanding of genome evolution in the monocots, Asparagales genomic sequence data were acquired and the structural properties of asparagus and onion genomes were analysed. Specifically, several available onion and asparagus bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) with contig sizes >35 kb were annotated and analysed, with a particular focus on the characterization of long terminal repeat (LTR) retrotransposons.

Key Results

The results reveal that LTR retrotransposons are the major components of the onion and garden asparagus genomes. These elements are mostly intact (i.e. with two LTRs), have mainly inserted within the past 6 million years and are piled up into nested structures. Analysis of shotgun genomic sequence data and the observation of two copies for some transposable elements (TEs) in annotated BACs indicates that some families have become particularly abundant, as high as 4–5 % (asparagus) or 3–4 % (onion) of the genome for the most abundant families, as also seen in large grass genomes such as wheat and maize.

Conclusions

Although previous annotations of contiguous genomic sequences have suggested that LTR retrotransposons were highly fragmented in these two Asparagales genomes, the results presented here show that this was largely due to the methodology used. In contrast, this current work indicates an ensemble of genomic features similar to those observed in the Poaceae.     

家蚕LTR逆转录转座子的鉴定、分类及系统发育分析

转座子是真核生物基因组的重要组成成分。为了研究家蚕Bombyx mori长末端重复序列 (long terminal repeat, LTR)逆转录转座子的分类及进化, 本研究采用de novo预测和同源性搜索相结合的方法, 在家蚕基因组中共鉴定出了38个LTR逆转录转座子家族, 序列长度占整个基因组的0.64%, 远小于先前预测的11.8%, 其中有6个家族为本研究的新发现。38个家族中, 26个家族有表达序列标签 (expression sequence tag, EST)证据, 表明这些家族具有潜在的活性。对有EST证据的6个家族和没有EST证据的5个家族用RT-PCR进行了组织表达谱实验, 结果表明这11个家族在一些组织中有表达, 这进一步证实了这些家族具有转录活性, 基于此我们推测家蚕中大部分的LTR逆转录转座子家族很可能具有潜在活性。对转座子的插入时间进行估计, 结果表明绝大部分元件都是最近1百万年内插入到家蚕基因组中的。我们还比较了黑腹果蝇Drosophila melanogaster、 冈比亚按蚊Anopheles gambiae和家蚕B. mori中Ty3/Gypsy超家族分支的差异, 结果表明不同枝在不同昆虫中有着不同的扩张。家蚕中LTR逆转录转座子的鉴定和系统分析有助于我们理解逆转录转座子在昆虫进化中的作用。     

Tempo and mode of Ty element evolution in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome contains five families of long terminal repeat (LTR) retrotransposons, Ty1-Ty5. The sequencing of the S. cerevisiae genome provides an unprecedented opportunity to examine the patterns of molecular variation existing among the entire genomic complement of Ty retrotransposons. We report the results of an analysis of the nucleotide and amino acid sequence variation within and between the five Ty element families of the S. cerevisiae genome. Our results indicate that individual Ty element families tend to be highly homogenous in both sequence and size variation. Comparisons of within-element 5' and 3' LTR sequences indicate that the vast majority of Ty elements have recently transposed. Furthermore, intrafamily Ty sequence comparisons reveal the action of negative selection on Ty element coding sequences. These results taken together suggest that there is a high level of genomic turnover of S. cerevisiae Ty elements, which is presumably in response to selective pressure to escape host-mediated repression and elimination mechanisms.     

Survey of long terminal repeat retrotransposons of domesticated silkworm (Bombyx mori)

Long terminal retrotransposons are major components of eukaryotic transposable elements. We have surveyed the long terminal repeats (LTR) retrotransposons of domesticated silkworm (Bombyx mori) by mining the data produced by Bombyx mori Genome Sequencing Project. At least 29 separate families of LTR retrotransposons are identified in this survey, comprising of 11.8% of the complete sequence. Families of domesticated silkworm LTR retrotransposons can be mainly classified into three groups: gypsy-like, copia-like, Pao-Bel. Fourteen families identified consist of gypsy-like elements, four families consist of copia-like elements and seven families consist of Pao-Bel elements. In addition to the three groups of LTR retrotransposons, two families of unusual non-coding elements are identified in the genome of this species. Further phylogenetic analysis of RT domain indicates that the elements of B.mori show high diversity and can form different clades in each group. An analysis of sequence variation from different families reveals distinct patterns of variation for the elements belonging to three groups. The analysis of the domesticated silkworm LTR retrotransposons should assist in our understanding of the roles of retroelement in lepidopteron insect genome evolution.     

Long terminal repeat retrotransposons of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mus musculus</Emphasis>

Background

Long terminal repeat (LTR) retrotransposons make up a large fraction of the typical mammalian genome. They comprise about 8% of the human genome and approximately 10% of the mouse genome. On account of their abundance, LTR retrotransposons are believed to hold major significance for genome structure and function. Recent advances in genome sequencing of a variety of model organisms has provided an unprecedented opportunity to evaluate better the diversity of LTR retrotransposons resident in eukaryotic genomes.

Results

Using a new data-mining program, LTR_STRUC, in conjunction with conventional techniques, we have mined the GenBank mouse (Mus musculus) database and the more complete Ensembl mouse dataset for LTR retrotransposons. We report here that the M. musculus genome contains at least 21 separate families of LTR retrotransposons; 13 of these families are described here for the first time.

Conclusions

All families of mouse LTR retrotransposons are members of the gypsy-like superfamily of retroviral-like elements. Several different families of unrelated non-autonomous elements were identified, suggesting that the evolution of non-autonomy may be a common event. High sequence similarity between several LTR retrotransposons identified in this study and those found in distantly-related species suggests that horizontal transfer has been a significant factor in the evolution of mouse LTR retrotransposons.