Effect of capping upon the mRNA properties of satellite tobacco necrosis virus ribonucleic acid.

The mRNA guanyltransferase-mRNA methyltransferases of vaccinia virions can be used to introduce a 5'-terminal m7g(5')pp(5')Apm... capping group onto the RNA of satellite tobacco necrosis virus (STNV RNA) to yield intact capped STNV RNA. Studies with an in vitro system from wheat germ and limiting quantities of capped and uncapped STNV RNA show that the rates and extents of formation of initiation complexes of protein synthesis by intact capped and uncapped STNV RNA are identical, suggesting that 5'-terminal cap groups cannot function in the translation of STNV RNA. Also, the cap analogue pm7G equally inhibits the initiation and the translation of limiting quantities of both capped and uncapped STNV RNA. These contrasting observations suggest that the wheat germ system contains a pm7G sensitive protein and that STNV RNA has a tertiary structure that restricts the function of an added 5'-terminal capping group. This theory is supported by observations that fragmented capped STNV RNA is better at forming initiation complexes than is equally fragmented uncapped STNV RNA.     

Specific inhibition of capped mRNA translation in vitro by m7G5''pppp5''G and m7G5''pppp5''m7G.

A unique set of diguanosine cap analogues containing a 5'-5' tetraphosphate linkage instead of the normal triphosphate was synthesized by chemical methylation of G5'pppp5'G. Both 7-methylguanosine products, m7G5'pppp5'G and m7G5'pppp5'm7G, acted as potent inhibitors of capped brome mosaic virus (BMV) RNA translation in the homologous wheat germ protein synthesis system. Inhibition of in vitro protein synthesis required the presence of the 7-methyl group on guanosine and was specific for capped mRNA. In comparison with the partial cap analogue, m7GTP, the methylated diguanosine tetraphosphate structures were 25-50 fold more potent inhibitors of in vitro protein synthesis. Analysis of the in vitro translation products of the four species of BMV RNA showed a differential sensitivity to inhibition by m7G5'pppp5'm7G.     

Evidence of methylation of B77 avian sarcoma virus genome RNA subunits.

B77 avian sarcoma virus RNA was labeled with (methyl-3H) methionine under conditions that prevent non-methyl incorporation of 3H radioactivity into purine rings. From the determined values for the extent of methylation of 4S RNA isolated from infected chicken embryo cells, it was estimated that 30 to 40S RNA subunits that results from heat denaturation of the 60 to 70S RNA contain approximately 21 methyl groups, of which 14 to 16 are present at internal positions as N6 -methyladenosine residues. In addition, each of the virion RNA subunits appears to contain about two methyl groups in the "capped" 5' -terminal structure m7G(5')ppp(5') gm. These properties are consistent with the hypothesis that the 30 to 40S genome RNA os oncornaviruses also serves an mRNA function in infected cells.     

Translation of capped and uncapped vesicular stomatitis virus and reovirus mRNA'S. Sensitivity to m7GpppAm and ionic conditions.

In an attempt to elucidate the role of the 5'-terminal 7-methylguanosine residue in translation of mammalian mRNAs, vesicular stomatitis virus (VS virus), and reovirus mRNAs containing and lacking this residue, and also Qbeta RNA, were translated in cell-free extracts from reticulocytes and wheat germ under a variety of ionic conditions. Optimal translation of mRNAs lacking a 5' m7G occurred at concentrations of KOAc or KCl which were lower than those optimal for normal "capped" mRNAs. However, this salt dependence was much less marked in the mammalian reticulocyte extract and, at salt concentrations optimal for translation of normal capped mRNAs, reticulocyte lysates translated uncapped with mRNAs at 30 to 60% the normal efficiency. At low K+ concentrations, wheat germ ribosomes bound and translated appreciable amounts of uncapped VS virus mRNA; controls showed that no m7G residue is added to the 5' end of the bound RNA. Analogues of the 5' end, such as m7GpppAm, inhibited translation of both normal and uncapped VS virus RNAs in wheat germ extracts to about the same extent, but the efficiency of its action was reduced at low K+ concentrations. We conclude that there is a reduced importance of the 5' m7G residue in ribosome-mRNA recognition at low K+ concentrations, and that translation of mRNAs in reticulocyte extract is, under any reaction conditions, less dependent on the presence of a 5' "cap" than in wheat germ extracts.     

Cycloleucine blocks 5'-terminal and internal methylations of avian sarcoma virus genome RNA.

Cycloleucine, a competitive inhibitor of ATP: L-methionine S-adenosyltransferase in vitro, has been used to reduce intracellular concentrations of S-adenosylmethionine and by this means to inhibit virion RNA methylation in chicken embryo cells that are infected with B77 avian sarcoma virus. Under conditions of cycloleucine treatment, where virus production as measured by incorporation of radioactive precursors or by number of infectious particles is not significantly affected, the internal m6A methylations of the avian sarcoma virus genome RNA are inhibited greater than 90%. The predominant 5'-terminal structure in viral RNA produced by treated cells in m7G(5')pppG (cap zero) rather than m7G-(5')pppGm (cap 1). It appears from these results that internal m6A and penultimate ribose methylations are not required for avian sarcoma RNA synthesis and function. Furthermore, these methylations are apparently not required for transport of genome RNA to virus assembly sites. The insensitivity of the 5'-terminal m7G methylation to inhibition by cycloleucine suggests that the affinity of S-adenosylmethionine for 7-methylguanosine methyltransferase is significantly greater than for the 2'-0-methyltransferases or the N6-methyltransferases.     

Dengue virus utilizes a novel strategy for translation initiation when cap-dependent translation is inhibited

Viruses have developed numerous mechanisms to usurp the host cell translation apparatus. Dengue virus (DEN) and other flaviviruses, such as West Nile and yellow fever viruses, contain a 5' m7GpppN-capped positive-sense RNA genome with a nonpolyadenylated 3' untranslated region (UTR) that has been presumed to undergo translation in a cap-dependent manner. However, the means by which the DEN genome is translated effectively in the presence of capped, polyadenylated cellular mRNAs is unknown. This report demonstrates that DEN replication and translation are not affected under conditions that inhibit cap-dependent translation by targeting the cap-binding protein eukaryotic initiation factor 4E, a key regulator of cellular translation. We further show that under cellular conditions in which translation factors are limiting, DEN can alternate between canonical cap-dependent translation initiation and a noncanonical mechanism that appears not to require a functional m7G cap. This DEN noncanonical translation is not mediated by an internal ribosome entry site but requires the interaction of the DEN 5' and 3' UTRs for activity, suggesting a novel strategy for translation of animal viruses.     

Absence of 5'' terminal capping in encephalomyocarditis virus RNA.

The nature of the 5' terminus of encephalomyocarditis (EMC) virion RNA has been investigated. We have failed to detect any capped products or nucleoside polyphosphates arising upon complete digestion of the RNA with T1, T2, and pancreatic ribonucleases, and it would therefore appear that the 5' terminus of EMC virus RNA is not phosphorylated and not capped with m7G. EMC virions do contain, however, large amounts of all four 5'-monosubstituted nucleoside triphosphates (4.2M pppG; 16.4M pppA; 3.OM pppU and 2.5M pppC), of which at least a proportion (about 15-20%) appear to remain bound to fully denatured RNA in the presence of divalent cations.     

The ORF2 protein of hepatitis E virus binds the 5' region of viral RNA

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a major human pathogen in much of the developing world. It is a plus-strand RNA virus with a 7.2-kb polyadenylated genome consisting of three open reading frames, ORF1, ORF2, and ORF3. Of these, ORF2 encodes the major capsid protein of the virus and ORF3 encodes a small protein of unknown function. Using the yeast three-hybrid system and traditional biochemical techniques, we have studied the RNA binding activities of ORF2 and ORF3, two proteins encoded in the 3' structural part of the genome. Since the genomic RNA from HEV has been postulated to contain secondary structures at the 5' and 3' ends, we used these two terminal regions, besides other regions within the genome, in this study. Experiments were designed to test for interactions between the genomic RNA fusion constructs with ORF2 and ORF3 hybrid proteins in a yeast cellular environment. We show here that the ORF2 protein contains RNA binding activity. The ORF2 protein specifically bound the 5' end of the HEV genome. Deletion analysis of this protein showed that its RNA binding activity was lost when deletions were made beyond the N-terminal 111 amino acids. Finer mapping of the interacting RNA revealed that a 76-nucleotide (nt) region at the 5' end of the HEV genome was responsible for binding the ORF2 protein. This 76-nt region included the 51-nt HEV sequence, conserved across alphaviruses. Our results support the requirement of this conserved sequence for interaction with ORF2 and also indicate an increase in the strength of the RNA-protein interaction when an additional 44 bases downstream of this 76-nt region were included. Secondary-structure predictions and the location of the ORF2 binding region within the HEV genome indicate that this interaction may play a role in viral encapsidation.     

戊型肝炎病毒亚基因组RNA的研究

本文利用同位素代谢标记在HEV感染85～10.5,6.5～7.5h分别检测到1及2个亚基因组RNA,而感染21h后及在成熟的病毒颗粒内未能检测到亚基因组RNA。通过杂交实验,发现HEV的亚基因组RNA具有典型的共3′端的半套式结构,且基因组RNA与亚基因组RNA的5′端不存在共同的引导序列。通过紫外转录图谱发现HEV的亚基因组RNA是通过独立转录的方式产生的。利用引物延伸反应发现两种亚基因组RNA的转录起始位点分别位于RNA聚合酶区及非结构区、结构区的基因间序列。     

Mutational analysis of the hypervariable region of hepatitis e virus reveals its involvement in the efficiency of viral RNA replication

The RNA genome of the hepatitis E virus (HEV) contains a hypervariable region (HVR) in ORF1 that tolerates small deletions with respect to infectivity. To further investigate the role of the HVR in HEV replication, we constructed a panel of mutants with overlapping deletions in the N-terminal, central, and C-terminal regions of the HVR by using a genotype 1 human HEV luciferase replicon and analyzed the effects of deletions on viral RNA replication in Huh7 cells. We found that the replication levels of the HVR deletion mutants were markedly reduced in Huh7 cells, suggesting a role of the HVR in viral replication efficiency. To further verify the results, we constructed HVR deletion mutants by using a genetically divergent, nonmammalian avian HEV, and similar effects on viral replication efficiency were observed when the avian HEV mutants were tested in LMH cells. Furthermore, the impact of complete HVR deletion on virus infectivity was tested in chickens, using an avian HEV mutant with a complete HVR deletion. Although the deletion mutant was still replication competent in LMH cells, the complete HVR deletion resulted in a loss of avian HEV infectivity in chickens. Since the HVR exhibits extensive variations in sequence and length among different HEV genotypes, we further examined the interchangeability of HVRs and demonstrated that HVR sequences are functionally exchangeable between HEV genotypes with regard to viral replication and infectivity in vitro, although genotype-specific HVR differences in replication efficiency were observed. The results showed that although the HVR tolerates small deletions with regard to infectivity, it may interact with viral and host factors to modulate the efficiency of HEV replication.     

Seroprevalence and Incidence of hepatitis E in Blood Donors in Upper Austria

Background

In recent years various studies showed, that hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a growing public health problem in many developed countries. Therefore, HEV infections might bear a transmission risk by blood transfusions. The clinical relevance still requires further investigations. The aim of this study was to provide an overview of acute HEV infections in Upper Austrian blood donors as well as a risk estimation of this transfusion-related infection.

Methods and Findings

A total of 58,915 blood donors were tested for HEV RNA using a commercial HEV RT-PCR Kit. 7 of these donors (0.01%) were PCR-positive with normal laboratory parameters in absence of clinical signs of hepatitis. Viral load determined by quantitative real-time PCR showed a HEV nucleic acid concentration of 2,217 293,635 IU/ml. At follow-up testing (2–11 weeks after donation) all blood donors had negative HEV RNA results. Additionally, genotyping was performed by amplification and sequencing of the ORF1 or ORF2 region of the HEV genome. All HEV RNA positive donor samples revealed a genotype 3 isolate. For the antibody screening, anti-HEV IgM and IgG were detected by ELISA. Follow up serological testing revealed that no donor was seropositive for HEV IgM or IgG antibodies at time of donation. Moreover, we verified the prevalence of anti-HEV IgG in 1,203 of the HEV RNA negative tested blood donors. Overall 13.55% showed positive results for anti-HEV IgG.

Conclusions

In the presented study, we investigated HEV infections in blood donations of Upper Austria over 1 year. We concluded that 1 out of 8,416 blood donations is HEV RNA positive. Seroprevalence of anti HEV IgG results in an age-related increase of 13.55%. Therefore, based on this data, we recommend HEV-PCR screening to prevent transmission of hepatitis E virus by transfusion.     

Structural bases for substrate recognition and activity in Meaban virus nucleoside-2'-O-methyltransferase

Viral methyltransferases are involved in the mRNA capping process, resulting in the transfer of a methyl group from S-adenosyl-L-methionine to capped RNA. Two groups of methyltransferases (MTases) are known: (guanine-N7)-methyltransferases (N7MTases), adding a methyl group onto the N7 atom of guanine, and (nucleoside-2'-O-)-methyltransferases (2'OMTases), adding a methyl group to a ribose hydroxyl. We have expressed and purified two constructs of Meaban virus (MV; genus Flavivirus) NS5 protein MTase domain (residues 1-265 and 1-293, respectively). We report here the three-dimensional structure of the shorter MTase construct in complex with the cofactor S-adenosyl-L-methionine, at 2.9 angstroms resolution. Inspection of the refined crystal structure, which highlights structural conservation of specific active site residues, together with sequence analysis and structural comparison with Dengue virus 2'OMTase, suggests that the crystallized enzyme belongs to the 2'OMTase subgroup. Enzymatic assays show that the short MV MTase construct is inactive, but the longer construct expressed can transfer a methyl group to the ribose 2'O atom of a short GpppAC(5) substrate. West Nile virus MTase domain has been recently shown to display both N7 and 2'O MTase activity on a capped RNA substrate comprising the 5'-terminal 190 nt of the West Nile virus genome. The lack of N7 MTase activity here reported for MV MTase may be related either to the small size of the capped RNA substrate, to its sequence, or to different structural properties of the C-terminal regions of West Nile virus and MV MTase-domains.     

In vitro and in vivo mutational analysis of the 3'-terminal regions of hepatitis e virus genomes and replicons

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) replication is not well understood, mainly because the virus does not infect cultured cells efficiently. However, Huh-7 cells transfected with full-length genomes produce open reading frame 2 protein, indicative of genome replication (6). To investigate the role of 3'-terminal sequences in RNA replication, we constructed chimeric full-length genomes with divergent 3'-terminal sequences of genotypes 2 and 3 replacing that of genotype 1 and transfected them into Huh-7 cells. The production of viral proteins by these full-length chimeras was indistinguishable from that of the wild type, suggesting that replication was not impaired. In order to better quantify HEV replication in cell culture, we constructed an HEV replicon with a reporter (luciferase). Luciferase production was cap dependent and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase dependent and increased following transfection of Huh-7 cells. Replicons harboring the 3'-terminal intergenotypic chimera sequences were also assayed for luciferase production. In spite of the large sequence differences among the 3' termini of the viruses, replication of the chimeric replicons was surprisingly similar to that of the parental replicon. However, a single unique nucleotide change within a predicted stem structure at the 3' terminus substantially reduced the efficiency of replication: RNA replication was partially restored by a covariant mutation. Similar patterns of replication were obtained when full-length genomes were inoculated into rhesus macaques, suggesting that the in vitro system could be used to predict the effect of 3'-terminal mutations in vivo. Incorporation of the 3'-terminal sequences of the swine strain of HEV into the genotype 1 human strain did not enable the human strain to infect swine.