Phytophagous insects found onSalsola in Turkey during exploration for biological weed control agents for California

A total of 50 species of phytophagous insects were collected from Russian thistle (Salsola iberica Sennen & Pau),S. kali L.,S. tragus L., and their apparent hybrids in Turkey during June and July, 1970. These collections contained many new host-plant and locality records forSalsola insects. Among the natural enemies detected and thought to warrant further consideration as agents worth importing for the biological control of Russian thistle in California were:Piesma salsolae (Becker) (Hemiptera-Heteroptera: Piesmatidae); Coleophora klimenoschiella Toll (Lepidoptera: Coleophoridae); an unidentified species ofPhycitidae (Lepidoptera), and an undeterminedLixus sp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Coleophora parthenica Meyrick, scheduled for initial release in California for the biological control of Russian thistle in early-1973, also is reported for the first time from Turkey.     

Field assessment of host plant specificity and potential effectiveness of a prospective biological control agent, Aceria salsolae, of Russian thistle, Salsola tragus

The eriophyid mite, Aceria salsolae de Lillo and Sobhian, is being evaluated as a prospective classical biological control agent of invasive alien tumbleweeds, including Salsola tragus, S. collina, S. paulsenii and S. australis, in North America. Previous laboratory experiments to determine the host specificity of the mite indicated that it could sometimes persist and multiply on some nontarget plants, including Bassia hyssopifolia and B. scoparia. These are both European plants whose geographic range overlaps that of the mite, but the mite has never been observed on them in the field. A field experiment was conducted in Italy to determine if the mite would infest and damage these plants under natural outdoor conditions. The results indicate that this mite does not attain significant populations on these nontarget plants nor does it significantly damage them. Salsola tragus was heavily infested by A. salsolae, and plant size was negatively correlated to the level of infestation. Although S. kali plants were also infested, their size did not appear to be affected by the mites. The other nontarget plants were not as suitable for the mite in the field as in previous laboratory experiments. We conclude that there would be no significant risk to nontarget plants as a result of using A. salsolae as a biological agent to control Salsola species in North America.     

The effects of oxalates produced by Salsola tragus on the phosphorus nutrition of Stipa pulchra

Oxalic acid is produced by some species of plants and mycorrhizal fungi and it may solubilize unavailable soil phosphorus (P) bound by cations (Ca⁺⁺, Al⁺⁺, Fe⁺⁺⁺). Field and greenhouse experiments were conducted to show whether oxalate produced by the annual Salsola tragus or added oxalic acid would solubilize P from the inorganic-bound soil P pool, making it available for uptake by Stipa pulchra. Oxalate could be leached in the laboratory from the senescent canopy of Salsola, and leaching by rainfall was hypothesized to be a source of potential increased soil P under the Salsola canopy. Both oxalate leached from the canopy of Salsola and added oxalic acid increased the availability of soil P in greenhouse experiments. The source of the increase in available soil P in the greenhouse experiment was shown to be the inorganic-bound P pool, as the total P concentration of the soil decreased with increasing oxalate. There were significant increases in Stipa shoot P in response to Salsola leachates and in response to added oxalate in the greenhouse studies. These results suggest an important role for oxalate in P cycling. On disturbed sites where Salsola invades it may act to facilitate the establishment of later seral species like Stipa by creating a nutrient island of available P.     

EFFECT OF THE NON-MYCORRHIZAL PIONEER PLANT SALSOLA KALI L. (CHENOPODIACEAE) ON VESICULAR-ARBUSCULAR MYCORRHIZAL (VAM) FUNGI

The effects of Salsola kali (Russian thistle) on chlamydospore numbers and viable propagules of the vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus fasciculatum were monitored for 18 wk under laboratory conditions. When S. kali or Agropyron smithii (a mycorrhizal species) were grown for 6 wk, the number of chlamydospores in soil declined to the same number as in the control (non-planted) soil; the number of chlamydospores in the S. kali and control soils continued to decline over the 18 wk period. However, using a Zea mays bioassay, the per cent colonization of corn roots obtained from soil in which S. kali grew for 6, 12, or 18 wk was significantly greater than in the control soil. These results suggest that S. kali may stabilize mycorrhizal infectivity of disturbed soils for at least short periods of time.     

Best linear unbiased prediction of host-range of the facultative parasite Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. salsolae, a potential biological control agent of Russian thistle

Russian thistle or tumbleweed (Salsola tragus L.) is an introduced invasive weed in N. America. It is widely distributed in the US and is a target of biological control efforts.The fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. in Penz. f. sp. salsolae (CGS) is a facultative parasite under evaluation for classical biological control of this weed. Host-range tests were conducted with CGS in quarantine to determine whether the fungus is safe to release in N. America. Ninetytwo accessions were analyzed from 19 families: Aizoaceae, Alliaceae, Amaranthaceae, Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Cactaceae, Campanulaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Cupressaceae, Fabaceae, Malvaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Phytolaccaceae, Poaceae, Polygonaceae, Sarcobataceae, and Solanaceae and 10 tribes within the Chenopodiaceae: Atripliceae, Beteae, Camphorosmeae, Chenopodieae, Corispermeae, Halopepideae, Polycnemeae, Salicornieae, Salsoleae, and Suaedeae. These included 62 genera and 120 species. To facilitate interpretation of results, disease reaction data were combined with a relationship matrix derived from internal transcribed spacer DNA sequences and analyzed with mixed model equations to produce Best Linear Unbiased Predictors (BLUPs) for each species. Twenty-nine species (30 accessions) from seven closely-related Chenopodiaceae tribes had significant levels of disease severity as indicated by BLUPs, compared to six species determined to be susceptible with least squares means estimates. The 29 susceptible species were: 1 from Atripliceae, 4 from Camphorosmeae, 1 from Halopepideae, 2 from Polycnemeae, 6 from Salicornieae, 8 from Salsolae, and 7 from Suaedeae. Most species in the genus Salsola, which are all introduced and weedy, were very susceptible and damaged by CGS. Statistical comparisons and contrasts of BLUPs indicated that these Salsola species were significantly more susceptible than non-target species, including 15 species from relatives in the closely-related genera Bassia (=Kochia), Nitrophila, Salicornia, Sarcocornia, and Suaeda. Of the 29 susceptible species, 10 native or commercially important species in N. America were identified as needing additional tests to determine the extent of any damage caused by infection.     

Interference betweenSalsola kali L. seedlings: Implications for plant succession

Studies were conducted to determine the cause of the decline of the early successional species,Salsola kali L., in the years following its colonization of disturbed soils in arid regions of the western United States. DriedS. kali plant material significantly stimulated the growth ofS. kali but had no effect on the growth or levels of mycorrhizal infection ofAgropyron smithii, a later successional grass. In contrast, root leachates fromS. kali caused a depression in the growth ofS. kali, but had no effect on the growth or mycorrhizal infection ofA. smithii. In the reciprical experiment, root leachates fromA. smithii had no effect on mycorrhizal fungi,S. kali, orA. smithii. This study contradicts earlier studies of the allelopathic potential ofS. kali litter and supports the importance of direct interference betweenS. kali seedling as the cause of the die-off ofS. kali during secondary succession.     

Two new species of Myrsinaceae from French Guiana

Herbarium studies leading to a treatment of the Myrsinaceae for the Flora of Central French Guiana resulted in the discovery of two heretofore undescribed species,Cybianthus prevostiae andStylogyne incognita. The species are described and illustrated, and hypotheses regarding phylogenetic relationships with their respective congeners are provided.Cybianthus prevostiae is unusual among members ofCybianthus subgen.Weigeltia owing to its monoaxial habit and ellipsoid pistil, and deeply cupuliform calyx.Stylogyne incognita, a taxon often confused withS. micrantha, is most closely related toS. sordida but is separated from it by the corymbose inflorescence, entire leaves, longer petioles, and membranaceous perianth.     

A potential role of alkaloid extracts from Salsola species (Chenopodiaceae) in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

From the aerial parts of Salsola oppositofolia, S. soda and S. tragus an alkaloid extract was obtained and tested to evaluate antioxidant and anti-cholinesterase activities. The in vitro study of the antioxidant activity by the DPPH method revealed a significant activity of Salsola alkaloid extracts with IC₅₀ values ranging from 16.30 μg/mL for S. oppositifolia to 26.17 μg/mL for S. tragus. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) inhibitory activities were evaluated. S. tragus alkaloid extract exerted the highest inhibitory activity against AChE (IC₅₀ of 30.2 μg/mL) and BChE (IC₅₀ of 26.5 μg/mL). Interestingly, S. soda and S. oppositifolia exhibited a selective inhibitory activity against BChE with IC₅₀ values of 34.3 μg/mL and 32.7 μg/mL, respectively. Tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids were identified and quantified by GC/MS analysis.     

Stipa×brozhiana (Poaceae) nothosp. nov. from the western Pamir Alai Mts (middle Asia) and taxonomical notes on Stipa×tzvelevii

Stipa ×brozhiana M. Nobis nothosp. nov. (Poaceae) is described and illustrated. The taxon belongs to sect. Smirnovia Tzvel. and originated from the hybridization of species belonging to sect. Smirnovia and Barbatae Junge. Stipa ×brozhiana is morphologically close to Stipa lipskyi Roshev., but is easily distinguished by its much shorter hairs on the seta, thinner, uni‐ or indistinctly bigeniculate awns, differently shaped callus and longer ligules of vegetative shoots. Characters distinguishing S. ×brozhiana from the parental species and other similar hybrid taxa belonging to sect. Smirnovia and occurring in the Pamir Alai Mts are discussed. In addition, the taxonomical status of S. ×tzvelevii Ikonn. pro sp., another taxon that has originated from hybridization between species belonging to sect. Smirnovia and Barbatae, is discussed. The taxon was originally described as a distinct species, but is now considered to be the hybrid S. caucasica×S. orientalis. The main characters distinguishing S. ×tzvelevii from parental species are given.     

Systematics and Evolution of the Dasyurid Marsupial Genus Sminthopsis: I. The Macroura Species Group

Genetic variation within the macroura species group, which includes Sminthopsis macroura, S. virginiae, S. douglasi, and S. bindi, was examined through analyses of complete mitochondrial 12S rRNA gene sequences, partial control-region DNA sequences, and allozymes. Divergent genetic lineages appear to be present within S. macroura and S. virginiae, and it is likely that this genetic divergence equates to currently unrecognized taxonomic diversity. Specimens of S. macroura (as currently recognized) belong to three genetically distinct lineages that are highly divergent from one another. Two of these lineages may be synonymous with two previously recognized dunnart species—S. froggatti and S. stalkeri. The third appears to represent "true" S. macroura and is itself genetically heterogeneous, with a number of subgroups present within it that may also represent currently unrecognized taxa. The mitochondrial DNA sequence divergences observed between S. virginiae nitela and the two other S. virginiaesubspecies are equivalent to, or greater than, those noted between other dunnart species. Allozyme divergences between these subspecies were however slightly lower, and determination on whether S. virginiae nitela should be returned to full species status (S. nitela) may require further evidence. Phylogenetic relationships between species in the macroura group appear to have been partially resolved, with individual 12S rRNA and combined mitochondrial DNA analyses recovering S. bindi as the earliest diverging taxon. Other relationships between species in the group were either not consistently recovered or lacked strong support.     

Micromorphological and chemical characterisation of Stachys recta L. subsp. serpentini (Fiori) Arrigoni in comparison to Stachys recta L. subsp. recta (Lamiaceae)

Stachys recta L. is a very polymorphous species in which numerous subspecies were recognised. S. recta L. subsp. serpentini (Fiori) Arrigoni is a typical endemism growing on serpentine soils in northern Apennines and particularly in Tuscany (Italy). In order to contribute to a better knowledge of this plant and to its differentiation with respect to S. recta L. subsp. recta, the micromorphological characters (non-glandular and glandular trichomes) and the essential oil composition of the two subspecies were investigated. Micromorphological characters were studied using scanning and transmission electron microscopy, while light microscopy was used for histochemical observations. Essential oil analysis was carried out by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry.In the two examined taxa, the morphology and distribution of glandular and non-glandular trichomes, and the different essential oil composition, may be considered distinctive characters at subspecies level. This is consistent with the taxonomic classification considering S. recta subsp. serpentini a subordinate taxon of S. recta.     

Anatomical types of leaves and assimilating shoots and carbon C/C isotope fractionation in Chinese representatives of Salsoleae s.l. (Chenopodiaceae)

To examine the anatomical types in Salsoleae s.l., and evaluate carbon isotope fractionation values for identifying the respective photosynthetic pathway, a total of 34 species representing 12 genera of Salsoleae s.l. in China were examined using light microscopy and carbon ¹³C/¹²C isotope fractionation. There are nine leaf anatomical types, namely, Sympegmoid (Sympegmoid type, Sympegmoid type II), Salsoloid with hypodermis (Salsola soda type, Salsola soda type II, Nanophyton type II), Salsoloid without hypodermis (Salsola kali type, Salsola kali type II, Nanophyton type, Climacoptera type II). Salsola soda type and Salsola soda type II are found in the assimilating shoots. Two new subtypes, Salsola soda type II and Nanophyton type II are reported. Anabasis brevifolia, A. eriopoda, A. elatior, A. truncata and A. salsa are of the Salsola soda type II, with a distinctive two-layered epidermis cells. Horaninowia ulicina is of the Nanophyton type II with hypodermis which distinguished from Nanophyton type; Both, Salsola kali type and Climacoptera type II exist in Climacoptera. The Climacoptera type II is distinguished from Climacoptera type by an adaxially interrupted Kranz layer. Salsola collina, S. zaidamica, S. praecox, S. pellucida and S. ruthenica in Salsola sect. Salsola have the Salsola kali type II. The Salsola kali type differs from Salsola kali type II having the palisade and Kranz cells interrupted by longitudinal collenchymatic ridges. Although carbon isotope fractionation data alone are already useful tools to identify photosynthesis, their determination in combination with other approaches, such as anatomical studies are necessary in order to render a structuring of all possibilities evolved among C₄ type Chenopodiaceae.     

On some species ofMycogloea

Three new species ofMycogloea are described and illustrated; they are:M. amethystina from Canada,M. nipponica, from Japan, andM. bullata from Thailand.Mycogloea tahitiensis is reported from Japan and additional undescribed taxa in the genus are briefly noted. Some characteristics of the genus are discussed, and a key is provided for six species recognized at this time.     

Cuticular Hydrocarbons of Reticulitermes (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) from Northern California Indicate Undescribed Species

Cuticular hydrocarbon mixtures of Reticulitermes samples from disparate locations in northern California were characterized and correlated with species determinations. Literature records indicate that there are two extant species of Reticulitermes in northern California: Reticulitermes hesperus Banks and R. tibialis Banks. We identified five distinct hydrocarbon phenotypes in Reticulitermes from northern California. Termites were diagnosed morphologically as R. tibialis for all five cuticular hydrocarbon phenotypes based on available keys to soldiers. Commonly accepted distributions of Reticulitermes in northern California indicate that our primary collection sites should only produce R. hesperus. On the basis of cuticular hydrocarbons alone we suggest that there are two or more undescribed taxa of Reticulitermes in northern California, or that described species of Reticulitermes occur in northern California, but have never been noticed before. Therefore, we conclude that the taxonomy of Reticulitermes in North America is in need of revision.     

Occurrence of Sapindopsis (Platanaceae) in the Cretaceous of Eurasia

Three new species of the genus Sapindopsis Fontaine from Central Asia and western Siberia are described: S. neuburgae (Vachr.) Golovn., comb. nov., S. janschinii (Vachr.) Golovn., comb. nov., and S. kryshtofovichii (I. Lebed.) Golovn., comb. nov. Geographical and stratigraphic analyses have shown that the genus evolved in Eurasia from the Middle Albian to the Cenomanian, and was mostly restricted to the subtropics of the Euro-Sinian phytogeographic area from the Middle East to Russian Primorye and northern China. The are no reliable records of Sapindopsis from Europe. The migration of Sapindopsis from North America to Eurasia through the Bering Land Bridge was most probably related to the Early-Middle Albian climatic optimum.     

Finalizing host range determination of a weed biological control pathogen with best linear unbiased predictors and damage assessment

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides f. sp. salsolae (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. in Penz. (CGS) is a facultative parasitic fungus being evaluated as a classical biological control agent of Russian thistle or tumbleweed (Salsola tragus L.). In initial host range determination tests, Henderson’s mixed model equations (MME) were used to generate best linear unbiased predictors (BLUPs) of disease severity reaction to CGS among 89 species of plants related to S. tragus. The MME provided: (1) disease assessments for rare and difficult or impossible to grow species, (2) environmentally independent measures of disease severity, (3) measures of disease severity for species versus a sample of material tested in a greenhouse, (4) objective indicators of susceptible and non-susceptible species, (5) a means to objectively compare disease on targets versus non-targets. Of the 89 species evaluated by the MME, eight native N. American species were predicted to be susceptible. As a result of these predictions, these eight species were further evaluated to determine the amount of actual damage caused by CGS. This was done by comparing root and shoot areas and weights between non-inoculated plants and plants inoculated with CGS. Results showed that several of the species exhibited some minor reduction in root weight and root area, but none of the species had any damage to above-ground plant parts. This supports the BLUP output in the initial host range determination tests. As a result of both analyses, there is no evidence that CGS would cause any non-target effects in nature.     

Parasitoids acquired byColeophora parthenica [Lepidoptera: Coleophoridae] ten years after its introduction into southern California for the biological control of Russian thistle

Parasitism of the stem and branch-boring mothColeophora parthenica Meyrick [Lepidoptera: Coleophoridae], introduced into California for the biological control of Russian thistle,Salsola australis R. Brown [Chenopodiaceae] was studied in the Coachella Valley of southern California during 1985–1986. Eight parasitoid species were reared from overwintering larvae ofC. parthenica, but none from the F₁ larvae, and just 2 individuals of one species from the F₂ summer generation. The level of parasitism of overwintering larvae was positively correlated with branch diameter, and ranged from 2% in the primary (main) branches to 45% in the tertiary branches in the spring 1985 sample, and from 2% to 19% in the spring 1986 sample, respectively. Rates of parasitism>20% were only found at sites with higher plant cover and chenopod diversity, but no other plant source or alternate hosts of the parasitoids ofC. parthenica were found. The 2 dominant species, the solitary, hymenopterous ectoparasitoids,Norbanus perplexus (Ashmead) [Pteromalidae] andEurytoma strigosa Bugbee [Eurytomidae], are both congeners of native parasitoids ofC. parthenica in Pakistan. The 2 other species of parasitoids ofC. parthenica in southern California for which other hosts are known are polyphagous and external on the larvae. No specialized endoparasitoid Braconidae, like those which dominate the native parasitoid complex in Pakistan and the U.S.S.R., have transferred toC. parthenica during its first 10 years in southern California.      

A new opuntioid cactus from the Cayman Islands, B.W.I., with a discussion and key to the genus Consolea Lemaire

A new subspecies ofConsolea millspaughii is described from the eastern bluff of Cayman Brac and northern coastal terrace of Little Cayman (Cayman Islands, British West Indies). This taxon has been mistakenly identified asConsolea spinosissima since its first collection in 1938. However, the smooth surface of its stem segments, not being demarcated by a network of depressed lines, its pitted areoles, and the fairly reduced pedicellate area of the pericarpel set is apart from this Jamaican endemic. Because the novelty here described brings to three the number ofConsolea taxa that are characterized by very closely set, pitted areoles, an informal “C. millspaughii species-group” is recognized. This assemblage of Western Caribbean opuntioids includesConsolea corallicola, C. millspaughii subsp.millspaughii, andC. millspaughii subsp.caymannnsis. The new subspecies is described, illustrated, and compared withC. spinosissima and with kindred taxa within the species-group. A key to all species and subspecies ofConsolea is provided.     

Supplemental risk evaluations and status of Puccinia carduorum for biological control of musk thistle

Tests of seven rare and endangered native North American Cirsium species and four modern artichoke lines were requested in response to a proposal for introduction of Puccinia carduorum into the United States for biological control of musk thistle (Carduus nutans ssp. leiophyllus). These tests were supplemental to an earlier extensive host-range study that established P. carduorum from musk thistle as host specific, useful for biological control, and suitable for limited field tests in Virginia. Test plants in the current study were evaluated in support of a proposal to use the rust in the western United States, and particularly, in California. None of the test plants in this study had been evaluated in previous assessments and all were either rare, endangered or threatened in California. Tests were conducted in both field and greenhouse settings. Field tests were run for two seasons, and test plants were inoculated by natural spread of the pathogen from source plants inside rings of test plants. Greenhouse tests involved direct inoculation under optimal conditions of dew and temperature (18–20 °C, 16 h) for infection. None of the seven Cirsium species or subspecies tested became infected by P. carduorum, either in field or greenhouse tests, compared to infection of 98% of the individual musk thistle plants (n = 102) from all the studies. Modern artichoke cultivars were tested only by direct inoculation under optimal greenhouse conditions. All artichoke plants (n = 115) either were immune (no macroscopic symptoms, n = 69) or at most, resistant (n = 46); pustules on all but two of the resistant plants were very small (0.30 mm diam). Despite infections on artichokes, P. carduorum could not be maintained on artichokes under optimal greenhouse conditions. These results confirm earlier findings from host-range tests and risk assessments of P. carduorum. This information suggests that rare, threatened, or endangered Cirsium spp. and modern artichoke cultivars are not likely to be adversely affected by the use of P. carduorum for biological control of musk thistle. These data have been reviewed by grower groups and regulatory agencies in a proposal for permission to use the rust for musk thistle control throughout the United States.