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1.
Djemel Hamdane Chuanwu Xia Sang-Choul Im Haoming Zhang Jung-Ja P. Kim Lucy Waskell 《The Journal of biological chemistry》2009,284(17):11374-11384
NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (CYPOR) catalyzes the transfer of
electrons to all known microsomal cytochromes P450. A CYPOR variant, with a
4-amino acid deletion in the hinge connecting the FMN domain to the rest of
the protein, has been crystallized in three remarkably extended conformations.
The variant donates an electron to cytochrome P450 at the same rate as the
wild-type, when provided with sufficient electrons. Nevertheless, it is
defective in its ability to transfer electrons intramolecularly from FAD to
FMN. The three extended CYPOR structures demonstrate that, by pivoting on the
C terminus of the hinge, the FMN domain of the enzyme undergoes a structural
rearrangement that separates it from FAD and exposes the FMN, allowing it to
interact with its redox partners. A similar movement most likely occurs in the
wild-type enzyme in the course of transferring electrons from FAD to its
physiological partner, cytochrome P450. A model of the complex between an open
conformation of CYPOR and cytochrome P450 is presented that satisfies
mutagenesis constraints. Neither lengthening the linker nor mutating its
sequence influenced the activity of CYPOR. It is likely that the analogous
linker in other members of the diflavin family functions in a similar
manner.NADPH-cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
(CYPOR)4 is a
∼78-kDa, multidomain, microsomal diflavin protein that shuttles electrons
from NADPH → FAD → FMN to members of the ubiquitous cytochrome P450
superfamily (1,
2). In humans, the cytochromes
P450 (cyt P450) are one of the most important families of proteins involved in
the biosynthesis and degradation of a vast number of endogenous compounds and
the detoxification and biodegradation of most foreign compounds. CYPOR also
donates electrons to heme oxygenase
(3), cytochrome
b5 (4), and
cytochrome c (5).The FAD receives a hydride anion from the obligate two electron donor NADPH
and passes the electrons one at a time to FMN. The FMN then donates electrons
to the redox partners of CYPOR, again one electron at a time. Cyt P450 accepts
electrons at two different steps in its complex reaction cycle. Ferric cyt
P450 is reduced to the ferrous protein, and oxyferrous cyt P450 receives the
second of the two electrons to form the peroxo
(Fe+3OO)2- cyt P450 intermediate
(6). In vivo, CYPOR
cycles between the one- and three-electron reduced forms
(7,
8). Although the one-electron
reduced form is an air-stable, neutral blue semiquinone (FMNox/sq,
-110 mV), it is the FMN hydroquinone (FMNsq/hq, -270 mV), not the
semiquinone, that donates an electron to its redox partners
(8–11).
CYPOR is the prototype of the mammalian diflavin-containing enzyme family,
which includes nitric-oxide synthase
(12), methionine synthase
reductase (13,
14), and a novel reductase
expressed in the cytoplasm of certain cancer cells
(15). CYPOR is also a target
for anticancer therapy, because it reductively activates anticancer prodrugs
(16).CYPOR consists of an N-terminal single α-helical transmembrane anchor
(∼6 kDa) responsible for its localization to the endoplasmic reticulum and
the soluble cytosolic portion (∼66 kDa) capable of reducing cytochrome
c. Crystal structures of the soluble form of the wild-type and
several mutant CYPORs are available
(17,
18). The first ∼170 amino
acids of the soluble domain are highly homologous to flavodoxin and bind FMN
(FMN domain), whereas the C-terminal portion of the soluble protein consists
of a FAD- and NADPH-binding domain with sequence and structural similarity to
ferredoxin-NADP+ oxidoreductase (FAD domain). A connecting domain,
possessing a unique sequence and structure, joins the FMN and FAD domains and
is partly responsible for the relative orientation of the FMN and FAD domains.
In the crystal structure, a convex anionic surface surrounds FMN. In the
wild-type crystal structure, the two flavin isoalloxazine rings are in van der
Waals contact, poised for efficient interflavin electron transfer
(17). Based on the
juxtaposition of the two flavins, an extrinsic electron transfer rate of
∼1010 s-1 is predicted
(19). However, the
experimentally observed electron transfer rate between the two flavins is
30–55 s-1
(20,
21). This modest rate and
slowing of electron transfer in a viscous solvent (75% glycerol) suggest that
interflavin electron transfer is likely conformationally gated. Moreover, the
“closed” crystal structure, in which the flavins are in contact,
is difficult to reconcile with mutagenesis studies that indicate the acidic
amino acid residues on the surface near FMN are involved in interacting with
cyt P450 (22). The first
structural insight into how cyt P450 might interact with the FMN domain of
CYPOR was provided by the crystal structure of a complex between the heme and
FMN-containing domains of cyt P450 BM3
(23). In this complex, the
methyl groups of FMN are oriented toward the heme on the proximal surface of
cyt P450 BM3. Considered together, these three observations, the slow
interflavin electron transfer, the mutagenesis data, and the structure of the
complex between the heme and FMN domains of cyt P450 BM3, suggest that CYPOR
will undergo a large conformational rearrangement in the course of shuttling
electrons from NADPH to cyt P450. In addition, crystal structures of various
CYPOR variants indicate that the FMN domain is highly mobile with respect to
the rest of the molecule
(18).Consideration of how the reductase would undergo a reorientation to
interact with its redox partners led us to hypothesize the existence of a
structural element in the reductase that would regulate the conformational
changes and the relative dynamic motion of the domains. Our attention focused
on the hinge region between the FMN and the connecting domain, because it is
often disordered and highly flexible in the crystal structure (supplemental
Fig. S1). The length and sequence of the hinge have been altered by
site-directed mutagenesis, and the effects of the mutations on the catalytic
properties of each mutant have been determined. The results demonstrate that
lengthening the linker or altering its sequence do not modify the properties
of CYPOR. In contrast, deletion of four amino acids markedly disrupts electron
transfer from FAD to FMN, whereas the ability of the FMN domain to donate
electrons to cyt P450 remains intact. The hinge deletion variant has been
crystallized in three “open” conformations capable of interacting
with cyt P450. 相似文献
2.
John W. Hardin Francis E. Reyes Robert T. Batey 《The Journal of biological chemistry》2009,284(22):15317-15324
In archaea and eukarya, box C/D ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes are
responsible for 2′-O-methylation of tRNAs and rRNAs. The
archaeal box C/D small RNP complex requires a small RNA component (sRNA)
possessing Watson-Crick complementarity to the target RNA along with three
proteins: L7Ae, Nop5p, and fibrillarin. Transfer of a methyl group from
S-adenosylmethionine to the target RNA is performed by fibrillarin,
which by itself has no affinity for the sRNA-target duplex. Instead, it is
targeted to the site of methylation through association with Nop5p, which in
turn binds to the L7Ae-sRNA complex. To understand how Nop5p serves as a
bridge between the targeting and catalytic functions of the box C/D small RNP
complex, we have employed alanine scanning to evaluate the interaction between
the Pyrococcus horikoshii Nop5p domain and an L7Ae box C/D RNA
complex. From these data, we were able to construct an isolated RNA-binding
domain (Nop-RBD) that folds correctly as demonstrated by x-ray crystallography
and binds to the L7Ae box C/D RNA complex with near wild type affinity. These
data demonstrate that the Nop-RBD is an autonomously folding and functional
module important for protein assembly in a number of complexes centered on the
L7Ae-kinkturn RNP.Many biological RNAs require extensive modification to attain full
functionality in the cell (1).
Currently there are over 100 known RNA modification types ranging from small
functional group substitutions to the addition of large multi-cyclic ring
structures (2). Transfer RNA,
one of many functional RNAs targeted for modification
(3-6),
possesses the greatest modification type diversity, many of which are
important for proper biological function
(7). Ribosomal RNA, on the
other hand, contains predominantly two types of modified nucleotides:
pseudouridine and 2′-O-methylribose
(8). The crystal structures of
the ribosome suggest that these modifications are important for proper folding
(9,
10) and structural
stabilization (11) in
vivo as evidenced by their strong tendency to localize to regions
associated with function (8,
12,
13). These roles have been
verified biochemically in a number of cases
(14), whereas newly emerging
functional modifications are continually being investigated.Box C/D ribonucleoprotein
(RNP)3 complexes serve
as RNA-guided site-specific 2′-O-methyltransferases in both
archaea and eukaryotes (15,
16) where they are referred to
as small RNP complexes and small nucleolar RNPs, respectively. Target RNA
pairs with the sRNA guide sequence and is methylated at the 2′-hydroxyl
group of the nucleotide five bases upstream of either the D or D′ box
motif of the sRNA (Fig. 1,
star) (17,
18). In archaea, the internal
C′ and D′ motifs generally conform to a box C/D consensus sequence
(19), and each sRNA contains
two guide regions ∼12 nucleotides in length
(20). The bipartite
architecture of the RNP potentially enables the complex to methylate two
distinct RNA targets (21) and
has been shown to be essential for site-specific methylation
(22).Open in a separate windowFIGURE 1.Organization of the archaeal box C/D complex. The protein components
of this RNP are L7Ae, Nop5p, and fibrillarin, which together bind a box C/D
sRNA. The regions of the Box C/D sRNA corresponding to the conserved C, D,
C′, and D′ boxes are labeled. The target RNA binds the sRNA
through Watson-Crick pairing and is methylated by fibrillarin at the fifth
nucleotide from the D/D′ boxes (star).In addition to the sRNA, the archaeal box C/D complex requires three
proteins for activity (23):
the ribosomal protein L7Ae
(24,
25), fibrillarin, and the
Nop56/Nop58 homolog Nop5p (Fig.
1). L7Ae binds to both box C/D and the C′/D′ motifs
(26), which respectively
comprise kink-turn (27) or
k-loop structures (28), to
initiate the assembly of the RNP
(29,
30). Fibrillarin performs the
methyl group transfer from the cofactor S-adenosylmethionine to the
target RNA
(31-33).
For this to occur, the active site of fibrillarin must be positioned precisely
over the specific 2′-hydroxyl group to be methylated. Although
fibrillarin methylates this functional group in the context of a Watson-Crick
base-paired helix (guide/target), it has little to no binding affinity for
double-stranded RNA or for the L7Ae-sRNA complex
(22,
26,
33,
34). Nop5p serves as an
intermediary protein bringing fibrillarin to the complex through its
association with both the L7Ae-sRNA complex and fibrillarin
(22). Along with its role as
an intermediary between fibrillarin and the L7Ae-sRNA complex, Nop5p possesses
other functions not yet fully understood. For example, Nop5p self-dimerizes
through a coiled-coil domain
(35) that in most archaea and
eukaryotic homologs includes a small insertion sequence of unknown function
(36,
37). However, dimerization and
fibrillarin binding have been shown to be mutually exclusive in
Methanocaldococcus jannaschii Nop5p, potentially because of the
presence of this insertion sequence
(36). Thus, whether Nop5p is a
monomer or a dimer in the active RNP is still under debate.In this study, we focus our attention on the Nop5p protein to investigate
its interaction with a L7Ae box C/D RNA complex because both the
fibrillarin-Nop5p and the L7Ae box C/D RNA interfaces are known from crystal
structures (29,
35,
38). Individual residues on
the surface of a monomeric form of Nop5p (referred to as mNop5p)
(22) were mutated to alanine,
and the effect on binding affinity for a L7Ae box C/D motif RNA complex was
assessed through the use of electrophoretic mobility shift assays. These data
reveal that residues important for binding cluster within the highly conserved
NOP domain (39,
40). To demonstrate that this
domain is solely responsible for the affinity of Nop5p for the preassembled
L7Ae box C/D RNA complex, we expressed and purified it in isolation from the
full Nop5p protein. The isolated Nop-RBD domain binds to the L7Ae box C/D RNA
complex with nearly wild type affinity, demonstrating that the Nop-RBD is
truly an autonomously folding and functional module. Comparison of our data
with the crystal structure of the homologous spliceosomal hPrp31-15.5K
protein-U4 snRNA complex (41)
suggests the adoption of a similar mode of binding, further supporting a
crucial role for the NOP domain in RNP complex assembly. 相似文献
3.
Leonard Kaysser Liane Lutsch Stefanie Siebenberg Emmanuel Wemakor Bernd Kammerer Bertolt Gust 《The Journal of biological chemistry》2009,284(22):14987-14996
Caprazamycins are potent anti-mycobacterial liponucleoside antibiotics
isolated from Streptomyces sp. MK730-62F2 and belong to the
translocase I inhibitor family. Their complex structure is derived from
5′-(β-O-aminoribosyl)-glycyluridine and comprises a unique
N-methyldiazepanone ring. The biosynthetic gene cluster has been
identified, cloned, and sequenced, representing the first gene cluster of a
translocase I inhibitor. Sequence analysis revealed the presence of 23 open
reading frames putatively involved in export, resistance, regulation, and
biosynthesis of the caprazamycins. Heterologous expression of the gene cluster
in Streptomyces coelicolor M512 led to the production of
non-glycosylated bioactive caprazamycin derivatives. A set of gene deletions
validated the boundaries of the cluster and inactivation of cpz21
resulted in the accumulation of novel simplified liponucleoside antibiotics
that lack the 3-methylglutaryl moiety. Therefore, Cpz21 is assigned to act as
an acyltransferase in caprazamycin biosynthesis. In vivo and in
silico analysis of the caprazamycin biosynthetic gene cluster allows a
first proposal of the biosynthetic pathway and provides insights into the
biosynthesis of related uridyl-antibiotics.Caprazamycins
(CPZs)2
(Fig. 1, 1) are
liponucleoside antibiotics isolated from a fermentation broth of
Streptomyces sp. MK730-62F2
(1,
2). They show excellent
activity in vitro against Gram-positive bacteria, in particular
against the genus Mycobacterium including Mycobacterium
intracellulare, Mycobacterium avium, and Mycobacterium
tuberculosis (3). In a
pulmonary mouse model with M. tuberculosis H37Rv, administration of
caprazamycin B exhibited a therapeutic effect but no significant toxicity
(4). Structural elucidation
(2) revealed a complex and
unique composition of elements the CPZs share only with the closely related
liposidomycins (LPMs, 2)
(5). The core skeleton is the
(+)-caprazol (5)
composed of an N-alkylated
5′-(β-O-aminoribosyl)-glycyluridine, also known from
FR-900493 (6)
(6) and the muraymycins
(7)
(7), which is cyclized to form
a rare diazepanone ring. Attached to the 3′″-OH are β-hydroxy
fatty acids of different chain length resulting in CPZs A–G
(1). They differ from
the LPMs in the absence of a sulfate group at the 2″-position of the
aminoribose and the presence of a permethylated l-rhamnose
β-glycosidically linked to the 3-methylglutaryl (3-MG) moiety.Open in a separate windowFIGURE 1.Nucleoside antibiotics of the translocase I inhibitor family.The LPMs have been shown to inhibit biosynthesis of the bacterial cell wall
by targeting the formation of lipid I
(8). The CPZs are expected to
act in the same way and are assigned to the growing number of translocase I
inhibitors that include other nucleoside antibiotics, like the tunicamycins
and mureidomycins (9). During
peptidoglycan formation, translocase I catalyzes the transfer of
UDP-MurNAc-pentapeptide to the undecaprenyl phosphate carrier to
generate lipid I (10). This
reaction is considered an unexploited and promising target for new
anti-infective drugs (11).Recent investigations indicate that the 3″-OH group
(12), the amino group of the
aminoribosyl-glycyluridine, and an intact uracil moiety
(13) are essential for the
inhibition of the Escherichia coli translocase I MraY. The chemical
synthesis of the (+)-caprazol
(5) was recently
accomplished (14), however,
this compound only shows weak antibacterial activity. In contrast, the
acylated compounds 3 and 4 exhibit strong growth inhibition of
mycobacteria, suggesting a potential role of the fatty acid side chain in
penetration of the bacterial cell
(15,
16). Apparently, the
acyl-caprazols (4)
represent the most simplified antibiotically active liponucleosides and a good
starting point for further optimization of this class of potential
therapeutics.Although chemical synthesis and biological activity of CPZs and LPMs has
been studied in some detail, their biosynthesis remains speculative and only
few data exists about the formation of other translocase I inhibitors
(17,
18). Nevertheless, we assume
that the CPZ biosynthetic pathway is partially similar to that of LPMs,
FR-90043 (6), and
muraymycins (7) and
presents a model for the comprehension and manipulation of liponucleoside
formation. Considering the unique structural features of the CPZs we also
expect some unusual biotransformations to be involved in the formation of,
e.g. the (+)-caprazol.Here we report the identification and analysis of the CPZ gene cluster, the
first cluster of a translocase I inhibitor. A set of gene disruption
experiments provide insights into the biosynthetic origin of the CPZs and
moreover, heterologous expression of the gene cluster allows the generation of
novel bioactive derivatives by pathway engineering. 相似文献
4.
5.
6.
Martin J. Sergeant Jian-Jun Li Christine Fox Nicola Brookbank Dean Rea Timothy D. H. Bugg Andrew J. Thompson 《The Journal of biological chemistry》2009,284(8):5257-5264
Members of the carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase family catalyze the
oxidative cleavage of carotenoids at various chain positions, leading to the
formation of a wide range of apocarotenoid signaling molecules. To explore the
functions of this diverse enzyme family, we have used a chemical genetic
approach to design selective inhibitors for different classes of carotenoid
cleavage dioxygenase. A set of 18 arylalkyl-hydroxamic acids was synthesized
in which the distance between an iron-chelating hydroxamic acid and an
aromatic ring was varied; these compounds were screened as inhibitors of four
different enzyme classes, either in vitro or in vivo. Potent
inhibitors were found that selectively inhibited enzymes that cleave
carotenoids at the 9,10 position; 50% inhibition was achieved at submicromolar
concentrations. Application of certain inhibitors at 100 μm to
Arabidopsis node explants or whole plants led to increased shoot
branching, consistent with inhibition of 9,10-cleavage.Carotenoids are synthesized in plants and micro-organisms as
photoprotective molecules and are key components in animal diets, an example
being β-carotene (pro-vitamin A). The oxidative cleavage of carotenoids
occurs in plants, animals, and micro-organisms and leads to the release of a
range of apocarotenoids that function as signaling molecules with a diverse
range of functions (1). The
first gene identified as encoding a carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase
(CCD)2 was the maize
Vp14 gene that is required for the formation of abscisic acid (ABA),
an important hormone that mediates responses to drought stress and aspects of
plant development such as seed and bud dormancy
(2). The VP14 enzyme cleaves at
the 11,12 position (Fig. 1) of
the epoxycarotenoids 9′-cis-neoxanthin and/or
9-cis-violaxanthin and is now classified as a
9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED)
(3), a subclass of the larger
CCD family.Open in a separate windowFIGURE 1.Reactions catalyzed by the carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases.
a, 11,12-oxidative cleavage of 9′-cis-neoxanthin by
NCED; b, oxidative cleavage reactions on β-carotene and
zeaxanthin.Since the discovery of Vp14, many other CCDs have been shown to be
involved in the production of a variety of apocarotenoids
(Fig. 1). In insects, the
visual pigment retinal is formed by oxidative cleavage of β-carotene by
β-carotene-15,15′-dioxygenase
(4). Retinal is produced by an
orthologous enzyme in vertebrates, where it is also converted to retinoic
acid, a regulator of differentiation during embryogenesis
(5). A distinct mammalian CCD
is believed to cleave carotenoids asymmetrically at the 9,10 position
(6) and, although its function
is unclear, recent evidence suggests a role in the metabolism of dietary
lycopene (7). The plant
volatiles β-ionone and geranylacetone are produced from an enzyme that
cleaves at the 9,10 position
(8) and the pigment
α-crocin found in the spice saffron results from an 7,8-cleavage enzyme
(9).Other CCDs have been identified where biological function is unknown, for
example, in cyanobacteria where a variety of cleavage specificities have been
described
(10-12).
In other cases, there are apocarotenoids with known functions, but the
identity or involvement of CCDs have not yet been described: grasshopper
ketone is a defensive secretion of the flightless grasshopper Romalea
microptera (13),
mycorradicin is produced by plant roots during symbiosis with arbuscular
mycorrhyza (14), and
strigolactones (15) are plant
metabolites that act as germination signals to parasitic weeds such as
Striga and Orobanche
(16).Recently it was discovered that strigolactones also function as a branching
hormone in plants (17,
18). The existence of such a
branching hormone has been known for some time, but its identity proved
elusive. However, it was known that the hormone was derived from the action of
at least two CCDs, max3 and max4 (more axillary growth)
(19), because deletion of
either of these genes in Arabidopsis thaliana, leads to a bushy
phenotype (20,
21). In Escherichia
coli assays, AtCCD7 (max3) cleaves β-carotene at the 9,10 position
and the apocarotenoid product (10-apo-β-carotene) is reported to be
further cleaved at 13,14 by AtCCD8 (max4) to produce 13-apo-β-carotene
(22). Also recent evidence
suggests that AtCCD8 is highly specific, cleaving only 10-apo-β-carotene
(23). How the production of
13-apo-β-carotene leads to the synthesis of the complex strigolactone is
unknown. The possibility remains that the enzymes may have different
specificities and cleavage activities in planta. In addition, a
cytochrome P450 enzyme (24) is
believed to be involved in strigolactone synthesis and acts in the pathway
downstream of the CCD genes. Strigolactone is thought to effect branching by
regulating auxin transport
(25). Because of the
involvement of CCDs in strigolactone synthesis, the possibility arises that
plant architecture and interaction with parasitic weeds and mycorrhyza could
be controlled by the manipulation of CCD activity.Although considerable success has been obtained using genetic approaches to
probe function and substrate specificity of CCDs in their native biological
contexts, particularly in plant species with simple genetic systems or that
are amenable to transgenesis, there are many systems where genetic approaches
are difficult or impossible. Also, when recombinant CCDs are studied either
in vitro or in heterologous in vivo assays, such as in
E. coli strains engineered to accumulate carotenoids
(26), they are often active
against a broad range of substrates
(5,
21,
27), and in many cases the
true in vivo substrate of a particular CCD remains unknown. Therefore
additional experimental tools are needed to investigate both apocarotenoid and
CCD functions in their native cellular environments.In the reverse chemical genetics approach, small molecules are identified
that are active against known target proteins; they are then applied to a
biological system to investigate protein function in vivo
(28,
29). This approach is
complementary to conventional genetics since the small molecules can be
applied easily to a broad range of species, their application can be
controlled in dose, time, and space to provide detailed studies of biological
functions, and individual proteins or whole protein classes may be targeted by
varying the specificity of the small molecules. Notably, functions of the
plant hormones gibberellin, brassinosteroid, and abscisic acid have been
successfully probed using this approach by adapting triazoles to inhibit
specific cytochrome P450 monooxygenases involved in the metabolism of these
hormones (30).In the case of the CCD family, the tertiary amines abamine
(31) and the more active
abamineSG (32) were reported
as specific inhibitors of NCED, and abamine was used to show new functions of
abscisic acid in legume nodulation
(33). However, no selective
inhibitors for other types of CCD are known. Here we have designed a novel
class of CCD inhibitor based on hydroxamic acids, where variable chain length
was used to direct inhibition of CCD enzymes that cleave carotenoids at
specific positions. We demonstrate the use of such novel inhibitors to control
shoot branching in a model plant. 相似文献
7.
Wenli Li Jianhua Ju Scott R. Rajski Hiroyuki Osada Ben Shen 《The Journal of biological chemistry》2008,283(42):28607-28617
Tautomycin (TTM) is a highly potent and specific protein phosphatase
inhibitor isolated from Streptomyces spiroverticillatus. The
biological activity of TTM makes it an important lead for drug discovery,
whereas its spiroketal-containing polyketide chain and rare dialkylmaleic
anhydride moiety draw attention to novel biosynthetic chemistries responsible
for its production. To elucidate the biosynthetic machinery associated with
these novel molecular features, the ttm biosynthetic gene cluster
from S. spiroverticillatus was isolated and characterized, and its
involvement in TTM biosynthesis was confirmed by gene inactivation and
complementation experiments. The ttm cluster was localized to a 86-kb
DNA region, consisting of 20 open reading frames that encode three modular
type I polyketide synthases (TtmHIJ), one type II thioesterase (TtmT), five
proteins for methoxymalonyl-S-acyl carrier protein biosynthesis
(Ttm-ABCDE), eight proteins for dialkylmaleic anhydride biosynthesis and
regulation (TtmKLMNOPRS), as well as two additional regulatory proteins (TtmF
and TtmQ) and one tailoring enzyme (TtmG). A model for TTM biosynthesis is
proposed based on functional assignments from sequence analysis, which agrees
well with previous feeding experiments, and has been further supported by
in vivo gene inactivation experiments. These findings set the stage
to fully investigate TTM biosynthesis and to biosynthetically engineer new TTM
analogs.Tautomycin (TTM)2
is a polyketide natural product first isolated in 1987 from Streptomyces
spiroverticillatus (1).
The structure and stereochemistry of TTM were established on the basis of
chemical degradation and spectroscopic evidence
(2-4).
TTM contains several features not common to polyketide natural products,
including a spiroketal group, a methoxymalonate-derived unit, and an acyl
chain bearing a dialkylmaleic anhydride moiety. Structurally related to TTM is
tautomycetin (TTN), which was first isolated in 1989 from Streptomyces
griseochromogenes following the discovery of TTM
(5,
6). The structure of TTN was
deduced by chemical degradation and spectroscopic analysis
(6), and its stereochemistry
was established by comparison of spectral data with those of TTN degradation
products and synthetic fragments
(7). Both TTM and TTN exist as
tautomeric mixtures composed of two interconverting anhydride and diacid forms
in approximately a 5:4 ratio under neutral conditions
(Fig. 1A)
(1,
2).Open in a separate windowFIGURE 1.A, structures of TTM and TTN in anhydride or diacid forms, and
biosynthetic origin of the dialkylmaleic anhydride by feeding experiments
using 13C-labeled acetate and propionate. The
methoxymalonate-derived unit in TTM is highlighted by the dotted oval.
R, polyketide moiety of TTM or TTN. B, selected natural product
inhibitors of PP-1 and PP-2A featuring a spiroketal or dialkylmaleric
anhydride moiety. C, selected natural products containing a
dialkylmaleic anhydride moiety.Early studies of TTM revealed its ability to induce morphological changes
in leukemia cells (8). However,
it was later realized that TTM is a potent and specific inhibitor of protein
phosphatases (PPs) PP-1 and PP-2A
(9). PP-1 and PP-2A are two of
the four major serine/threonine protein phosphatases that regulate diverse
cellular events such as cell division, gene expression, muscle contraction,
glycogen metabolism, and neuronal signaling in eukaryotic cells
(10-12).
Many natural product PP-1 and PP-2A inhibitors are known, including okadaic
acid (13), calyculin-A
(14), phoslactomycin,
spirastrellolide, and cantharidin
(15)
(Fig. 1B), as well as
TTM (16,
17), and TTN
(18). They have served as
useful tools to study PP-involved intracellular events in vivo and as
novel leads for drug discovery
(10-12).
Among these PP inhibitors, TTM and TTN are unique because of their PP-1
selectivity. Despite their structural similarities, TTM exhibits potent
specific inhibition of PP-1 and PP-2A with IC50 values of 22-32
nm and only a slight preference for PP-1
(18). Conversely, TTN shows
nearly a 40-fold higher binding affinity to PP-1 (IC50 = 1.6
nm) than to PP-2A (IC50 = 62 nm)
(18). Because the major
structural differences between TTM and TTN reside in the region distal to the
dialkylmaleic anhydride moiety (Fig.
1A), it has been proposed that differences in these
moieties might be responsible for the PP-1 selectivity
(17-19).
Finally, TTN also has an impressive immuno-suppressive activity
(20,
21), which is apparently
devoid for TTM. Clearly, the structural differences between these two
polyketides translate into large, exploitable differences in bio-activities,
yet an understanding of the biosynthetic origins of these differences remains
elusive.The spiroketal and dialkylmaleic anhydride features of TTM are uncommon for
polyketide natural products, as is the methoxymalonate-derived unit
(Fig. 1A). Few studies
have been carried out for spiroketal biosynthesis, yet it is reasonably common
among the phosphatase inhibitors such as calyculin A, okadaic acid, and a few
others (Fig. 1B). Less
common, but still found in the phosphatase inhibitor cantharidin, as well as
TTM and TTN, is the dialkylmaleic anhydride moiety
(Fig. 1B); this unit
appears in a number of other natural products
(Fig. 1C), although
the biosynthetic steps leading to this reactive moiety (a protected version of
a dicarboxylate) have not been rigorously investigated. Feeding experiments
with 13C-labeled precursors indicated that the anhydride of TTM and
TTN is assembled from a propionate and an as yet undefined C-5 unit
(Fig. 1A), which would
require novel chemistry for polyketide biosynthesis
(22). TTM differentiates
itself from all known PP-1 and PP-2A inhibitors by virtue of its unique
combination of both the dialkymaleic anhydride and spiroketal
functionalities.Multiple total syntheses of TTM and a small number of analogs have been
reported, confirming the predicted structure and absolute stereochemistry and
facilitating structure-activity relationship studies on PP inhibition and
apoptosis induction (19,
23-25).
These studies revealed that: (i) the C22-C26 carbon chain and the
dialkylmaleic anhydride are the minimum requirements for TTM bioactivity; (ii)
the C18-C21 carbon chain and 22-hydroxy group are important for PP inhibition;
(iii) the spiroketal moiety determines the affinity to specific protein
phosphatases; (iv) the active form is most likely the dicarboxylate; and (v)
3′-epi-TTM exhibits 1,000-fold less activity than TTM. However, taken as
a whole, none of the analogs had an improved potency or selectivity for PP-1
inhibition than the natural TTM
(19,
22-25).
As a result, a more specific inhibitor of PP-1 is urgently awaited to
differentiate the physiological roles of PP-1 and PP-2A in vivo and
to explore PPs as therapeutic targets for drug discovery.We have undertaken the cloning and characterization of the TTM biosynthetic
gene cluster from S. spiroverticillatus as the first step toward
engineering TTM biosynthesis for novel analogs
(26). We report here: (i)
cloning and sequencing of the complete ttm gene cluster, (ii)
determination of the ttm gene cluster boundaries, (iii)
bioinformatics analysis of the ttm cluster and a proposal for TTM
biosynthesis, and (iv) genetic characterization of the TTM pathway to support
the proposed pathway. Of particular interest has been the identification of
genes possibly related to dialkylmaleic anhydride biosynthesis, the unveiling
of the ttm polyketide synthase (PKS) genes predicted to select and
incorporate four different starter and extender units for TTM production, and
the apparent lack of candidate genes associated with spiroketal formation.
These findings now set the stage to engineer TTM analogs for novel PP-1- and
PP-2A-specific inhibitors by applying combinatorial biosynthetic methods to
the TTM biosynthetic machinery. 相似文献
8.
Jeffrey M. Boyd Jamie L. Sondelski Diana M. Downs 《The Journal of biological chemistry》2009,284(1):110-118
The ApbC protein has been shown previously to bind and rapidly transfer
iron-sulfur ([Fe-S]) clusters to an apoprotein (Boyd, J. M., Pierik, A. J.,
Netz, D. J., Lill, R., and Downs, D. M. (2008) Biochemistry 47,
8195–8202. This study utilized both in vivo and in
vitro assays to examine the function of variant ApbC proteins. The in
vivo assays assessed the ability of ApbC proteins to function in pathways
with low and high demand for [Fe-S] cluster proteins. Variant ApbC proteins
were purified and assayed for the ability to hydrolyze ATP, bind [Fe-S]
cluster, and transfer [Fe-S] cluster. This study details the first kinetic
analysis of ATP hydrolysis for a member of the ParA subfamily of
“deviant” Walker A proteins. Moreover, this study details the
first functional analysis of mutant variants of the ever expanding family of
ApbC/Nbp35 [Fe-S] cluster biosynthetic proteins. The results herein show that
ApbC protein needs ATPase activity and the ability to bind and rapidly
transfer [Fe-S] clusters for in vivo function.Proteins containing iron-sulfur ([Fe-S]) clusters are employed in a wide
array of metabolic functions (reviewed in Ref.
1). Research addressing the
biosynthesis of the iron-molybdenum cofactor of nitrogenase in Azotobacter
vinelandii led to the discovery of an operon
(iscAnifnifUSVcysE1) involved in the
biosynthesis of [Fe-S] clusters (reviewed in Ref.
2). Subsequent experiments led
to the finding of two more systems involved in the de novo
biosynthesis of [Fe-S] clusters, the isc and the suf systems
(3,
4). Like Escherichia
coli, the genome of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium
encodes for the isc and suf [Fe-S] cluster biosynthesis
machinery.Recent studies have identified a number of additional or
non-isc/-suf-encoded proteins that are involved in bacterial
[Fe-S] cluster biosynthesis and repair. Examples include the following: CyaY,
an iron-binding protein believed to be involved in iron trafficking and iron
delivery
(5–7);
YggX, an Fe2+-binding protein that protects the cell from oxidative
stress (8,
9); ErpA, an alternate A-type
[Fe-S] cluster scaffolding protein
(10); NfuA, a proposed
intermediate [Fe-S] delivery protein
(11–13);
YtfE, a protein proposed to be involved in [Fe-S] cluster repair
(14,
15); and CsdA-CsdE, an
alternative cysteine desulferase
(16).Analysis of the metabolic network anchored to thiamine biosynthesis in
S. enterica identified lesions in three non-isc or
-suf loci that compromise Fe-S metabolism as follows: apbC,
apbE, and rseC
(17–21).
This metabolic system was subsequently used to dissect a role for
cyaY and gshA in [Fe-S] cluster metabolism
(6,
22,
23). Of these, the
apbC (mrp in E. coli) locus was identified as the
predominant site of lesions that altered thiamine synthesis by disrupting
[Fe-S] cluster metabolism (17,
18).ApbC is a member of the ParA subfamily of proteins that have a wide array
of functions, including electron transfer
(24), initiation of cell
division (25), and DNA
segregation (26,
27). Importantly, ATP
hydrolysis is required for function of all well characterized members of this
subfamily, and all members contain a “deviant” Walker A motif,
which contains two lysine residues instead of one (GKXXXGK(S/T))
(28). ApbC has been shown to
hydrolyze ATP (17).Recently, five proteins with a high degree of identity to ApbC have been
shown to be involved in [Fe-S] cluster metabolism in eukaryotes. The sequence
alignments of the central portion of these proteins and bacterial ApbC are
shown in Fig. 1. HCF101 was
demonstrated to be involved in chloroplast [Fe-S] cluster metabolism
(29,
30). The CFD1, Npb35, and
huNbp35 (formally Nubp1) proteins were demonstrated to be involved in
cytoplasmic [Fe-S] cluster metabolism
(31,
32). Ind1 was demonstrated to
be involved in the maturation of [Fe-S] clusters in the mitochondrial enzyme
NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase
(33). There is currently no
report of any of these proteins hydrolyzing ATP.Open in a separate windowFIGURE 1.Protein sequence alignments of members of the ApbC/Nbp35 subfamily of
ParA family of proteins. Protein alignments were assembled using the
Clustal_W method in the Lasergene® software and show only the central
portion of the proteins, which have the highest sequence conservation. The
three boxed areas highlight the Walker A box, conserved Ser residue,
and CXXC motif. Proteins listed are as follows: ApbC (S.
enterica serovar Typhimurium LT2), CFD1 (S. cerevisiae), Nbp35
(S. cerevisiae), HCF101 (Arabidopsis thaliana), huNpb35
(formally Nubp1) (Homo sapiens), and Ind1 (Candida
albicans).Biochemical analysis of ApbC indicated that it could bind and transfer
[Fe-S] clusters to Saccharomyces cerevisiae apo-isopropylmalate
isomerase (34). Additional
genetic studies indicated that ApbC has a degree of functional redundancy with
IscU, a known [Fe-S] cluster scaffolding protein
(35,
36).In this study we investigate the correlation between the biochemical
properties of ApbC (i.e. ATPase activity, [Fe-S] cluster binding, and
[Fe-S] cluster transfer rates) and the in vivo function of this
protein. This is the first detailed kinetic analysis of ATP hydrolysis for a
member of the ParA subfamily of deviant Walker A proteins and the first
functional analysis of a member of the ever expanding family of ApbC/Nbp35
proteins. Data presented indicate that noncomplementing variants have distinct
biochemical properties that place them in three distinct classes. 相似文献
9.
Harry S. Courtney Yi Li Waleed O. Twal W. Scott Argraves 《The Journal of biological chemistry》2009,284(19):12966-12971
The adhesion of bacteria to host tissues is often mediated by interactions
with extracellular matrices. Herein, we report on the interactions of the
group A streptococcus, Streptococcus pyogenes, with the extracellular
matrix protein fibulin-1. S. pyogenes bound purified fibulin-1 in a
dose-dependent manner. Genetic ablation of serum opacity factor (SOF), a
virulence determinant of S. pyogenes, reduced binding by ∼50%,
and a recombinant peptide of SOF inhibited binding of fibulin-1 to
streptococci by ∼45%. Fibulin-1 bound to purified SOF2 in a dose-dependent
manner with high affinity (Kd = 1.6 nm). The
fibulin-1-binding domain was localized to amino acid residues 457–806 of
SOF2, whereas the fibronectin-binding domain is contained within residues
807–931 of SOF2, indicating that these two domains are separate and
distinct. Fibulin-1 bound to recombinant SOF from M types 2, 4, 28, and 75 of
S. pyogenes, indicating that the fibulin-1-binding domain is likely
conserved among SOF from different serotypes. Mixed binding experiments
suggested that gelatin, fibronectin, fibulin-1, and SOF form a quaternary
molecular complex that enhanced the binding of fibulin-1. These data indicate
that S. pyogenes can interact with fibulin-1 and that SOF is a major
streptococcal receptor for fibulin-1 but not the only receptor. Such
interactions with fibulin-1 may be involved in the adhesion of S.
pyogenes to extracellular matrices of the host.Adhesion of bacteria to host surfaces is the first stage in establishing
bacterial infections in the human host, and a variety of molecular mechanisms
are utilized to initiate adhesion. A common mechanism for adhesion involves
interactions between bacterial adhesins and components of the extracellular
matrices of the host. The identification and characterization of microbial
surface components recognizing adhesive matrix molecules (MSCRAMM) has led to
important advances in vaccines and immunotherapies for preventing and treating
bacterial infections (1).The group A streptococcus, Streptococcus pyogenes, is a major
human pathogen causing diseases ranging from relative minor infections such as
pharyngitis and cellulitis to severe infections with high levels of morbidity
and mortality such as necrotizing fasciitis and toxic shock syndrome
(2). This pathogen expresses
adhesins that interact with various components of the extracellular matrix
including laminin, elastin, fibronectin, fibrinogen, and collagen
(3–7).
The interactions between fibronectin and S. pyogenes have been
intensely studied, and these investigations have revealed at least 10
different streptococcal proteins that bind fibronectin
(4).Serum opacity factor
(SOF)2 is a major
fibronectin-binding protein that is involved in adhesion to host cells
(8–11).
SOF is a virulence determinant that is expressed by approximately half of the
clinical isolates of S. pyogenes
(8). SOF opacifies serum by
binding and displacing apoA-I in high density lipoproteins
(8,
12–15).
SOF is covalently linked to the streptococcal cell wall via an LPSTG sortase
recognition site and is also released in a soluble form. SOF has two
functionally distinct domains, an N-terminal domain that opacifies serum and a
C-terminal domain that binds fibronectin. The role of SOF in adhesion involves
both its C-terminal fibronectin-binding domain and an N-terminal region (see
Fig. 1 for a schematic of
structure) (9,
11). However, the nature of
the interactions between the N-terminal region of SOF and host components is
not well characterized.Open in a separate windowFIGURE 1.A, a schematic of the structure of SOF and its functional domains
is shown. The assignment of functional domains are based on the findings of
Rakonjac et al. (33),
Kreikemeyer et al.
(34), Courtney et al.
(8,
13), and results presented in
this work. Fn, fibronectin. B, the data for the binding of
SOF peptides to fibronectin are from previous publications
(8,
13), and the data for
fibulin-1 are from the present work.Herein, we report on the interactions between a truncated form of SOF in
which its fibronectin-binding domain has been deleted and the extracellular
matrix protein fibulin-1. Fibulin-1 is a member of the fibulin family that
currently consists of seven glycoproteins. All fibulins contain epidermal
growth factor-like repeats and a unique fibulin-type module at its C terminus
that define this family (16,
17). Fibulin-1 is found within
the extracellular matrices and in human plasma at 30–50 μg/ml
(18). It interacts with many
of the components of the extracellular matrix including fibronectin, laminin,
fibrinogen, nidogen-1, endostatin, aggrecan, and versican
(16,
19). Due to its intimate
relationship with the extracellular matrix, it is not surprising that the
defects in fibulin-1 have a wide-ranging impact. Genetic evidence suggests
that fibulin-1 is involved in tissue organization, the maturation and
maintenance of blood vessels, and multiple embryonic pathways
(16,
20–22).Although it has been established that many of the other components of the
extracellular matrix can interact with bacteria, there has been no previous
report on the binding of fibulins to bacteria. Our findings indicate that
fibulin-1 does bind to streptococci and that SOF is a major streptococcal
receptor for fibulin-1. 相似文献
10.
Tsuneo Ferguson Jitesh A. Soares Tanja Lienard Gerhard Gottschalk Joseph A. Krzycki 《The Journal of biological chemistry》2009,284(4):2285-2295
Archaeal methane formation from methylamines is initiated by distinct
methyltransferases with specificity for monomethylamine, dimethylamine, or
trimethylamine. Each methylamine methyltransferase methylates a cognate
corrinoid protein, which is subsequently demethylated by a second
methyltransferase to form methyl-coenzyme M, the direct methane precursor.
Methylation of the corrinoid protein requires reduction of the central cobalt
to the highly reducing and nucleophilic Co(I) state. RamA, a 60-kDa monomeric
iron-sulfur protein, was isolated from Methanosarcina barkeri and is
required for in vitro ATP-dependent reductive activation of
methylamine:CoM methyl transfer from all three methylamines. In the absence of
the methyltransferases, highly purified RamA was shown to mediate the
ATP-dependent reductive activation of Co(II) corrinoid to the Co(I) state for
the monomethylamine corrinoid protein, MtmC. The ramA gene is located
near a cluster of genes required for monomethylamine methyltransferase
activity, including MtbA, the methylamine-specific CoM methylase and the
pyl operon required for co-translational insertion of pyrrolysine
into the active site of methylamine methyltransferases. RamA possesses a
C-terminal ferredoxin-like domain capable of binding two tetranuclear
iron-sulfur proteins. Mutliple ramA homologs were identified in
genomes of methanogenic Archaea, often encoded near methyltrophic
methyltransferase genes. RamA homologs are also encoded in a diverse selection
of bacterial genomes, often located near genes for corrinoid-dependent
methyltransferases. These results suggest that RamA mediates reductive
activation of corrinoid proteins and that it is the first functional archetype
of COG3894, a family of redox proteins of unknown function.Most methanogenic Archaea are capable of producing methane only from carbon
dioxide. The Methanosarcinaceae are a notable exception as representatives are
capable of methylotrophic methanogenesis from methylated amines, methylated
thiols, or methanol. Methanogenesis from these substrates requires methylation
of 2-mercaptoethanesulfonic acid (coenzyme M or CoM) that is subsequently used
by methylreductase to generate methane and a mixed disulfide whose reduction
leads to energy conservation
(1–4).Methylation of CoM with trimethylamine
(TMA),4 dimethylamine
(DMA), or monomethylamine (MMA) is initiated by three distinct
methyltransferases that methylate cognate corrinoid-binding proteins
(3). MtmB, the MMA
methyltransferase, specifically methylates cognate corrinoid protein, MtmC,
with MMA (see Fig. 1)
(5,
6). The DMA methyltransferase,
MtbB, and its cognate corrinoid protein, MtbC, interact specifically to
demethylate DMA (7,
8). TMA is demethylated by the
TMA methyltransferase (MttB) in conjunction with the TMA corrinoid protein
(MttC) (8,
9). Each of the methylated
corrinoid proteins is a substrate for a methylcobamide:CoM methyltransferase,
MtbA, which produces methyl-CoM
(10–12).Open in a separate windowFIGURE 1.MMA:CoM methyl transfer. A schematic of the reactions catalyzed by
MtmB, MtmC, and MtbA is shown that emphasizes the key role of MtmC in the
catalytic cycle of both methyltransferases. Oxidation to Co(II)-MtmC of the
supernucleophilic Co(I)-MtmC catalytic intermediate inactivates methyl
transfer from MMA to the thiolate of coenzyme M (HSCoM). In
vitro reduction of the Co(II)-MtmC with either methyl viologen reduced to
the neutral species or with RamA in an ATP-dependent reaction can regenerate
the Co(I) species. In either case in vitro Ti(III)-citrate is the
ultimate source of reducing power.CoM methylation with methanol requires the methyltransferase MtaB and the
corrinoid protein MtaC, which is then demethylated by another
methylcobamide:CoM methyltransferase, MtaA
(13–15).
The methylation of CoM with methylated thiols such as dimethyl sulfide in
Methanosarcina barkeri is catalyzed by a corrinoid protein that is
methylated by dimethyl sulfide and demethylated by CoM, but in this case an
associated CoM methylase carries out both methylation reactions
(16).In bacteria, analogous methyltransferase systems relying on small corrinoid
proteins are used to achieve methylation of tetrahydrofolate. In
Methylobacterium spp., CmuA, a single methyltransferase with a
corrinoid binding domain, along with a separate pterin methylase, effect the
methylation of tetrahydrofolate with chloromethane
(17,
18). In Acetobacterium
dehalogenans and Moorella thermoacetica various three-component
systems exist for specific demethylation of different phenylmethyl ethers,
such as vanillate (19) and
veratrol (20), again for the
methylation of tetrahydrofolate. Sequencing of the genes encoding the
corrinoid proteins central to the archaeal and bacterial methylotrophic
pathways revealed they are close homologs. Furthermore, genes predicted to
encode such corrinoid proteins and pterin methyltransferases are widespread in
bacterial genomes, often without demonstrated metabolic function. All of these
corrinoid proteins are similar to the well characterized cobalamin binding
domain of methionine synthase
(21,
22).In contrast, the TMA, DMA, MMA, and methanol methyltransferases are not
homologous proteins. The methylamine methyltransferases do share the common
distinction of having in-frame amber codons
(6,
8) within their encoding genes
that corresponds to the genetically encoded amino acid pyrrolysine
(23–25).
Pyrrolysine has been proposed to act in presenting a methylammonium adduct to
the central cobalt ion of the corrinoid protein for methyl transfer
(3,
23,
26). However, nucleophilic
attack on a methyl donor requires the central cobalt ion of a corrinoid
cofactor is in the nucleophilic Co(I) state rather than the inactive Co(II)
state (27). Subsequent
demethylation of the methyl-Co(III) corrinoid cofactor regenerates the
nucleophilic Co(I) cofactor. The Co(I)/Co(II) in the cobalamin binding domain
of methionine synthase has an Em value of -525 mV at pH 7.5
(28). It is likely to be
similarly low in the homologous methyltrophic corrinoid proteins. These low
redox potentials make the corrinoid cofactor subject to adventitious oxidation
to the inactive Co(II) state (Fig.
1).During isolation, these corrinoid proteins are usually recovered in a
mixture of Co(II) or hydroxy-Co(III) states. For in vitro studies,
chemical reduction can maintain the corrinoid protein in the active Co(I)
form. The methanol:CoM or the phenylmethyl ether:tetrahydrofolate
methyltransferase systems can be activated in vitro by the addition
of Ti(III) alone as an artificial reductant
(14,
19). In contrast, activation
of the methylamine corrinoid proteins further requires the addition of methyl
viologen as a redox mediator. Ti(III) reduces methyl viologen to the extremely
low potential neutral species. In vitro activation with these agents
does not require ATP (5,
7,
9).Cellular mechanisms also exist to achieve the reductive activation of
corrinoid cofactors in methyltransferase systems. Activation of human
methionine synthase involves reduction of the co(II)balamin by methionine
synthase reductase (29),
whereas the Escherichia coli enzyme requires flavodoxin
(30). The endergonic reduction
is coupled with the exergonic methylation of the corrinoid with
S-adenosylmethionine
(27). An activation system
exists in cellular extracts of A. dehalogenans that can activate the
veratrol:tetrahydrofolate three-component system and catalyze the direct
reduction of the veratrol-specific corrinoid protein to the Co(I) state;
however, the activating protein has not been purified
(31).For the methanogen methylamine and methanol methyltransferase systems, an
activation process is readily detectable in cell extracts that is ATP- and
hydrogen-dependent (32,
33). Daas et al.
(34,
35) examined the activation of
the methanol methyltransferase system in M. barkeri and purified in
low yield a methyltransferase activation protein (MAP) which in the presence
of a preparation of hydrogenase and uncharacterized proteins was required for
ATP-dependent reductive activation of methanol:CoM methyl transfer. MAP was
found to be a heterodimeric protein without a UV-visible detectable prosthetic
group. Unfortunately, no protein sequence has been reported for MAP, leaving
the identity of the gene in question. The same MAP protein was also suggested
to activate methylamine:CoM methyl transfer, but this suggestion was based on
results with crude protein fractions containing many cellular proteins other
than MAP (36).Here we report of the identification and purification to near-homogeneity
of RamA (reductive activation of
methyltransfer, amines), a protein mediating activation
of methylamine:CoM methyl transfer in a highly purified system
(Fig. 1). Quite unlike MAP,
which was reported to lack prosthetic groups, RamA is an iron-sulfur protein
that can catalyze reduction of a corrinoid protein such as MtmC to the Co(I)
state in an ATP-dependent reaction (Fig.
1). Peptide mapping of RamA allowed identification of the gene
encoding RamA and its homologs in the genomes of Methanosarcina spp.
RamA belongs to COG3894, a group of uncharacterized metal-binding proteins
found in a number of genomes. RamA, thus, provides a functional example for a
family of proteins widespread among bacteria and Archaea whose physiological
role had been largely unknown. 相似文献
11.
Hans Bakker Takuji Oka Angel Ashikov Ajit Yadav Monika Berger Nadia A. Rana Xiaomei Bai Yoshifumi Jigami Robert S. Haltiwanger Jeffrey D. Esko Rita Gerardy-Schahn 《The Journal of biological chemistry》2009,284(4):2576-2583
In mammals, xylose is found as the first sugar residue of the
tetrasaccharide
GlcAβ1-3Galβ1-3Galβ1-4Xylβ1-O-Ser, initiating the
formation of the glycosaminoglycans heparin/heparan sulfate and
chondroitin/dermatan sulfate. It is also found in the trisaccharide
Xylα1-3Xylα1-3Glcβ1-O-Ser on epidermal growth factor
repeats of proteins, such as Notch. UDP-xylose synthase (UXS), which catalyzes
the formation of the UDP-xylose substrate for the different
xylosyltransferases through decarboxylation of UDP-glucuronic acid, resides in
the endoplasmic reticulum and/or Golgi lumen. Since xylosylation takes place
in these organelles, no obvious requirement exists for membrane transport of
UDP-xylose. However, UDP-xylose transport across isolated Golgi membranes has
been documented, and we recently succeeded with the cloning of a human
UDP-xylose transporter (SLC25B4). Here we provide new evidence for a
functional role of UDP-xylose transport by characterization of a new Chinese
hamster ovary cell mutant, designated pgsI-208, that lacks UXS activity. The
mutant fails to initiate glycosaminoglycan synthesis and is not capable of
xylosylating Notch. Complementation was achieved by expression of a
cytoplasmic variant of UXS, which proves the existence of a functional Golgi
UDP-xylose transporter. A ∼200 fold increase of UDP-glucuronic acid
occurred in pgsI-208 cells, demonstrating a lack of UDP-xylose-mediated
control of the cytoplasmically localized UDP-glucose dehydrogenase in the
mutant. The data presented in this study suggest the bidirectional transport
of UDP-xylose across endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi membranes and its role in
controlling homeostasis of UDP-glucuronic acid and UDP-xylose production.Xylose is only known to occur in two different mammalian glycans. First,
xylose is the starting sugar residue of the common tetrasaccharide,
GlcAβ1,3Galβ1,3Galβ1,4Xylβ1-O-Ser, attached to
proteoglycan core proteins to initiate the biosynthesis of glycosaminoglycans
(GAGs)2
(1). Second, xylose is found in
the trisaccharide Xylα1,3Xylα1,3Glcβ1-O-Ser in
epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like repeats of proteins, such as blood
coagulation factors VII and IX
(2) and Notch
(3)
(Fig. 1). Two variants of
O-xylosyltransferases (XylT1 and XylT2) are responsible for the
initiation of glycosaminoglycan biosynthesis, which differ in terms of
acceptor specificity and tissue distribution
(4-7),
and two different enzymatic activities have been identified that catalyze
xylosylation of O-glucose residues added to EGF repeats
(8-10).
On Notch, O-glucose occurs on EGF repeats in a similar fashion as
O-fucose, which modifications have been shown to influence
ligand-mediated Notch signaling
(11-16).
Recently, rumi, the gene encoding the Notch
O-glucosyltransferase in Drosophila, has been identified,
and inactivation of the gene was found to cause a temperature-sensitive
Notch phenotype (17).
Although this finding clearly demonstrated that O-glucosylation is
essential for Notch signaling, the importance of xylosylation for Notch
functions remains ambiguous.Open in a separate windowFIGURE 1.UDP-xylose metabolism in mammalian cells. A, UDP-Xyl is
synthesized in two steps from UDP-Glc by the enzymes UGDH, forming UDP-GlcA,
and UXS, also referred to as UDP-glucuronic acid decarboxylase. UGDH is
inhibited by the product of the second enzyme, UDP-Xyl
(42). B, in mammals,
UDP-Xyl is synthesized within the lumen of the ER/Golgi, where it is substrate
for different xylosyltransferases incorporating xylose in the
glycosaminoglycan core (XylT1 and XylT2) or in O-glucose-linked
glycans. The nucleotide sugar transporter SLC35D1
(52) has been shown to
transport UDP-GlcA over the ER membrane and SLC35B4
(29) to transport UDP-Xyl over
the Golgi membrane. The function of this latter transporter is unclear.Several different Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell lines with defects in
GAG biosynthesis have been isolated by screening for reduced incorporation of
sulfate (18) and reduced
binding of fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2)
(19,
20) and by direct selection
with FGF-2 conjugated to the plant cytotoxin saporin
(21). Isolated cells (called
pgs, for proteoglycan synthesis mutants)
(21) exhibited defects in
various stages of GAG biosynthesis, ranging from the initiating
xylosyltransferase to specific sulfation reactions
(18,
19,
21-25).
Mutants that affect overall GAG biosynthesis were shown to have a defect in
the assembly of the common core tetrasaccharide. Interestingly, these latter
mutants could be separated into clones in which GAG biosynthesis can be
restored by the external addition of xylosides as artificial primers and those
that cannot (18). The two
mutants belonging to the first group are pgsA-745 and pgsB-761. Although
pgs-745 is defective in XylT2
(4-6,
18), pgsB-761 exhibits a
defect in galactosyltransferase I (B4GalT7), the enzyme that catalyzes the
first step in the elongation of the xylosylated protein (25 (see
Fig. 1B). Restoration
of GAG biosynthesis in the latter mutant presumably occurs through a second
β1-4-galactosyltransferase, able to act on xylosides when provided at
high concentration but not on the endogenous protein-linked xylose.Here we describe the isolation of a third CHO cell line (pgsI-208) with the
xyloside-correctable phenotype. The mutant is deficient in UDP-xylose synthase
(UXS), also known as UDP-glucuronic acid decarboxylase. This enzyme catalyzes
the synthesis of UDP-Xyl, the common donor substrate for the different
xylosyltransferases, by decarboxylation of UDP-glucuronic acid. Importantly,
UXS in the animal cell is localized in the lumen of the ER and/or Golgi
(26-28),
superseding at first sight the need for the Golgi UDP-xylose transporter,
which has been recently cloned and characterized
(29). Using this cell variant,
experiments were designed that establish the functional significance of
UDP-Xyl transport with respect to UDP-glucuronic acid production and
xylosylation. 相似文献
12.
Steffen Kutter Manfred S. Weiss Georg Wille Ralph Golbik Michael Spinka Stephan K?nig 《The Journal of biological chemistry》2009,284(18):12136-12144
The mechanism by which the enzyme pyruvate decarboxylase from two yeast
species is activated allosterically has been elucidated. A total of seven
three-dimensional structures of the enzyme, of enzyme variants, or of enzyme
complexes from two yeast species, three of them reported here for the first
time, provide detailed atomic resolution snapshots along the activation
coordinate. The prime event is the covalent binding of the substrate pyruvate
to the side chain of cysteine 221, thus forming a thiohemiketal. This reaction
causes the shift of a neighboring amino acid, which eventually leads to the
rigidification of two otherwise flexible loops, one of which provides two
histidine residues necessary to complete the enzymatically competent active
site architecture. The structural data are complemented and supported by
kinetic investigations and binding studies, providing a consistent picture of
the structural changes occurring upon enzyme activation.Pyruvate decarboxylases (EC 4.1.1.1) catalyze the non-oxidative
decarboxylation of pyruvate, yielding acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide.
Together with the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.1), which reduces the
acetaldehyde to ethanol with the help of the co-substrate NADH, it represents
the metabolic pathway of alcoholic fermentation.
PDC3 is localized in
the cytosol of cells from yeasts, plant seeds, and a few bacteria. The
catalytic activity of PDC depends on the presence of the cofactor thiamine
diphosphate (ThDP), which is bound mainly via a divalent metal ion (magnesium
in most cases) to the protein moiety. Many detailed kinetic studies have been
published on yeast PDC wild types
(1–9).
A number of ScPDC variants were analyzed, too
(1–9).
Some active site variants (E51A, D28A, E477Q) proved to be almost
catalytically inactive. PDCs are multisubunit enzymes. The typical molecular
mass of one subunit is 59–61 kDa. The tetramer is the catalytically
active state of most PDCs. Higher oligomers (octamers) have been described for
PDCs from plant seeds (10,
11) or some fungi
(12). However, studies on
structure function relationships of yeast PDCs showed that the dimer is the
minimum functional unit of the enzyme displaying considerable catalytic
activity (13,
14). The two closely related
pyruvate decarboxylases from Saccharomyces cerevisiae
(ScPDC) and Kluyveromyces lactis (KlPDC) are well
characterized ThDP-dependent enzymes, which share 86.3% identical amino acid
residues. They have been studied in great detail by means of kinetic
investigations and spectroscopic studies. Both enzymes are allosterically
regulated as reflected by sigmoid steady state kinetics and lag phases in
their progress curves. The substrate PYR activates the initially inactive
yeast PDCs in a time-dependent manner. Kinetic studies reveal a slow
isomerization as triggered by substrate binding to a separate regulatory site
(15). A number of substrate
surrogates have been identified, which are able to activate PDC as well. The
effects of pyruvamide (PA; for the chemical structure, see
Scheme 1) on the activation
kinetics have been studied in detail for ScPDC
(15) and for KlPDC
(16). Phosphonate analogues
(among them methyl acetylphosphonate, MAP,
Scheme 1) of pyruvate have been
applied to elucidate the catalytic cycle
(17–21)
or to trap reaction intermediates in crystal structures
(22–24).
Chemical modification of PDCs with group-specific reagents pointed to an
important role of cysteine residues
(25). Site-directed
mutagenesis of cysteine residues to alanine or serine demonstrated that
residue Cys-221 might be the decisive one for enzyme activation
(1,
4,
26,
27). Consequently, it was
postulated that the region around Cys-221 is the regulatory site of PDC, and
formation of a thiohemiketal at this side chain was proposed. However, a
number of questions remained elusive. (i) How is the activator fixed at the
regulatory site? (ii) What are the prime structural properties of the active
state as compared with the inactive state? (iii) How is the signal transmitted
from the regulatory to the active site? (iv) Which are the decisive features
of the active site in the activated state that render efficient catalysis
possible? To answer these questions, we present here the crystal structures of
KlPDC with the bound substrate surrogate MAP and of the
ScPDC variants D28E and E477Q with bound substrate PYR along with
kinetic studies on the activating effect of both activators and binding
studies using the small angle x-ray solution scattering (SAXS) method.Open in a separate windowSCHEME 1.Chemical structures of the substrate pyruvate, the activators pyruvamide
and methyl acetylphosphonate, and the thiohemiketal from pyruvate and
cysteine, respectively. 相似文献
13.
Neil Portman Sylvain Lacomble Benjamin Thomas Paul G. McKean Keith Gull 《The Journal of biological chemistry》2009,284(9):5610-5619
Eukaryotic flagella from organisms such as Trypanosoma brucei can
be isolated and their protein components identified by mass spectrometry. Here
we used a comparative approach utilizing two-dimensional difference gel
electrophoresis and isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation to
reveal protein components of flagellar structures via ablation by inducible
RNA interference mutation. By this approach we identified 20 novel components
of the paraflagellar rod (PFR). Using epitope tagging we validated a subset of
these as being present within the PFR by immunofluorescence. Bioinformatic
analysis of the PFR cohort reveals a likely calcium/calmodulin
regulatory/signaling linkage between some components. We extended the RNA
interference mutant/comparative proteomic analysis to individual novel
components of our PFR proteome, showing that the approach has the power to
reveal dependences between subgroups within the cohort.The eukaryotic cilium/flagellum is a multifunctional organelle involved in
an array of biological processes ranging from cell motility to cell signaling.
Many cells in the human body, across a range of tissues and organs, produce
either single or multiple, motile or nonmotile cilia where they perform
diverse biological processes essential for maintaining human health. This
diversity of function is reflected in an equally diverse range of pathologies
and syndromes that result from ciliary/flagellar dysfunction via inherited
mutations. This diversity is a reflection of the molecular complexity, both in
components and in protein interactions of this organelle
(1,
2).The canonical eukaryotic flagellum displays a characteristic “9 +
2” microtubular profile, where nine outer doublet microtubules encircle
two singlet central pair microtubules, an arrangement found in organisms as
diverse as trypanosomes, green algae, and mammals. Although this 9 + 2
microtubule arrangement has been highly conserved through eukaryotic
evolution, there are examples where this standard layout has been modified,
including the “9 + 0” layout of primary cilia and the “9 + 9
+ 2” of many insect sperm flagella. In addition to this highly conserved
9 + 2 microtubule structure, flagella and cilia show a vast range of discrete
substructures, such as the inner and outer dynein arms, nexin links, radial
spokes, bipartite bridges, beak-like projections, ponticuli, and other
microtubule elaborations that are essential for cilium/flagellum function.
Cilia and flagella can also exhibit various extra-axonemal elaborations, and
although these are often restricted to specific lineages, there is evidence
that some functions, such as metabolic specialization, provided by these
diverse structures are conserved
(3,
4). Examples of such
extraaxonemal elaborations include the fibrous or rod-like structures in the
flagellum of the parasite Giardia lamblia
(5), kinetoplastid protozoa
(6,
7), and mammalian sperm
flagella, along with extra sheaths of microtubules in insect sperm flagella
(8).Several recent studies have set out to determine the protein composition of
the flagellum and demonstrated the existence of both an evolutionarily
conserved core of flagellum/cilium proteins and a large number of
lineage-restricted components
(9–13).
Although these approaches provide an invaluable catalogue of the protein
components of the flagellum, they provide only limited information on the
substructural localization of proteins and do not address either the likely
protein-protein interactions or the function of these proteins within the
flagellum. To address these issues, the protein composition of some axonemal
substructures (radial spoke complexes; for example see Ref.
14) has been determined by
direct isolation of these structures, and a number of complexes have been
resolved by the use of co-immunoprecipitation of indicator proteins (for
example see Refs. 15 and
16). In addition the
localization and function of a number of flagellar proteins have been
investigated by detailed analysis of mutant cell lines (particularly of
Chlamydomonas reinhardtii) that exhibit defined structural defects
within the assembled axoneme. Early studies employed two-dimensional PAGE to
compare the proteomic profile of purified flagella derived from C.
reinhardtii mutants and wild type cells
(17–22)
that showed numerous proteomic differences in the derived profiles. The
available technology did not allow identification of the individual proteins
within the profiles. Recent proteomic advances offer the opportunity for this
identification. For instance the comparative proteomic technique isotope coded
affinity tagging has been used to identify components of the outer dynein arm
(23). This technique utilizes
stable isotope tagging to quantify the relative concentration of proteins
between two samples.Trypanosomatids are important protozoan parasites whose flagellum is a
critical organelle for their cell biology and pathogenicity. Their
experimental tractability also provides opportunities for generic insights to
the eukaryotic flagellum. They are responsible for a number of devastating
diseases of humans and other mammals, including commercially important
livestock, in some of the poorest areas of the world
(24–26).
All kinetoplastids build a flagellum that contains an extra-axonemal structure
termed the paraflagellar rod
(PFR).3 In the case of
the African trypanosome Trypanosoma brucei brucei, this consists of a
complex subdomain organization of a proximal, intermediate, and distal domain
as well as links to specific doublets of the axoneme and a structure known as
the flagellum attachment zone (FAZ) by which the flagellum is attached to the
cell body for much of its length
(6,
7). The PFR is required for
cell motility (27,
28) and serves as a scaffold
for metabolic and signaling enzymes
(3,
29,
30). We have previously shown
that the presence of this structure is essential for the survival of the
mammalian bloodstream form of the parasite both in vitro (in culture)
(12) and in vivo (in
mice) (31) as part of a wider
requirement for motility in this life cycle stage
(12,
32,
33).Two major protein components of the PFR (PFR1 and PFR2) have been
identified
(34–38)
along with several minor PFR protein components
(3,
29,
30,
39–43).
The availability of RNAi techniques in T. brucei allowed the
generation of the inducible mutant cell line snl2
(44), in which RNAi-mediated
ablation of the PFR2 protein causes the specific loss of both the distal and
intermediate PFR subdomains (see Fig.
1A). After RNAi induction cells become paralyzed but
remain viable (44). Our
laboratory (3) has previously
identified two PFR-specific adenylate kinases by comparing two-dimensional
SDS-PAGE gels of purified flagella from induced and noninduced snl2
cells. These proteins cannot be incorporated into the PFR after PFR2
ablation.Open in a separate windowFIGURE 1.A, electron microscopy images (prepared as described previously
(12)) of T. brucei
snl2 noninduced and RNAi-induced flagellar transverse sections shows the
loss of a large part of the PFR structure. Bar, 100 nm. B,
frequencies (resolution 0.25) of log2 protein abundance ratios of
noninduced to noninduced samples from quadruplex iTRAQ. C, averaged
frequencies (resolution 0.25) of log2 protein abundance ratios of
induced to noninduced samples from quadruplex iTRAQ. D,
log2 protein abundance ratios of induced to noninduced samples from
all iTRAQ experiments for all proteins that show at least a 2-fold decrease
after RNAi induction of snl2. α- and β-tubulin show a less
than 2-fold change as expected. The results of individual sample pairs are
graphed separately as per key.The ability to ablate PFR2 and hence disable assembly of a major portion of
the PFR affords an opportunity to apply advanced proteomic approaches to
identify additional PFR proteins. In this present study we have used two
complementary proteomic approaches, two-dimensional fluorescence difference
gel electrophoresis (DIGE)
(45) and isobaric tags for
relative and absolute quantitation (iTRAQ; Applied Biosystems), to investigate
PFR+ and PFR–flagella to define 30 components of these two PFR
subdomains. We have also conducted a bioinformatic analysis of amino acid
motifs present in this protein cohort to gain insights into the possible
functions of novel proteins and used epitope tagging approaches to confirm the
PFR localization of a test set of identified proteins. We then asked whether
it was possible to combine comparative proteomics with further analysis of
RNAi mutant trypanosomes to provide detailed information on the individual
interactions and assembly dependences within the novel PFR components we had
identified. By iterating the subtractive proteomic analysis with novel
putative PFR proteins, we were able to reveal the existence of distinct PFR
protein dependence relationships and provide intriguing new insight into
regulatory processes potentially operating within the trypanosome flagellum.
Finally, this study establishes the mutant/proteomic combination as a powerful
enabling approach for revealing dependences within subcohorts of the flagellar
proteome. 相似文献
14.
15.
Glucosinolates are plant secondary metabolites present in Brassicaceae
plants such as the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Intact
glucosinolates are believed to be biologically inactive, whereas degradation
products after hydrolysis have multiple roles in growth regulation and
defense. The degradation of glucosinolates is catalyzed by thioglucosidases
called myrosinases and leads by default to the formation of isothiocyanates.
The interaction of a protein called epithiospecifier protein (ESP) with
myrosinase diverts the reaction toward the production of epithionitriles or
nitriles depending on the glucosinolate structure. Here we report the
identification of a new group of nitrile-specifier proteins (AtNSPs) in A.
thaliana able to generate nitriles in conjunction with myrosinase and a
more detailed characterization of one member (AtNSP2). Recombinant AtNSP2
expressed in Escherichia coli was used to test its impact on the
outcome of glucosinolate hydrolysis using a gas chromatography-mass
spectrometry approach. AtNSP proteins share 30–45% sequence homology
with A. thaliana ESP. Although AtESP and AtNSP proteins can switch
myrosinase-catalyzed degradation of 2-propenylglucosinolate from
isothiocyanate to nitrile, only AtESP generates the corresponding
epithionitrile. Using the aromatic benzylglucosinolate, recombinant AtNSP2 is
also able to direct product formation to the nitrile. Analysis of
glucosinolate hydrolysis profiles of transgenic A. thaliana plants
overexpressing AtNSP2 confirms its nitrile-specifier activity in
planta. In silico expression analysis reveals distinctive
expression patterns of AtNSPs, which supports a biological role for these
proteins. In conclusion, we show that AtNSPs belonging to a new family of
A. thaliana proteins structurally related to AtESP divert product
formation from myrosinase-catalyzed glucosinolate hydrolysis and, thereby,
likely affect the biological consequences of glucosinolate degradation. We
discuss similarities and properties of AtNSPs and related proteins and the
biological implications.Brassicaceae plants such as oilseed rape (Brassica napus), turnip
(Brassica rapa), and white mustard (Sinapis alba) as well as
the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana contain a group of secondary
metabolites known as glucosinolates
(GSLs)2
(1,
2). These are
β-thioglucoside N-hydroxysulfates with a sulfur-linked
β-d-glucopyranose moiety and a variable side chain that is
derived from one of eight amino acids or their methylene group-elongated
derivatives. Aliphatic GSLs are derived from alanine, leucine, isoleucine,
valine, or predominantly methionine. Tyrosine or phenylalanine give aromatic
GSLs, and tryptophan-derived GSLs are called indolic GSLs (for review, see
Ref. 3). Although more than 120
different GSLs have been identified in total so far, individual plant species
usually contain only a few GSLs
(2). Quantitative and
qualitative differences of GSL profiles are also observed within a species,
such as, for example, for different A. thaliana ecotypes
(4–6).
In addition, GSL composition varies among organs and during the life cycle of
plants (7,
8) and is affected by external
factors (9).Intact GSLs are mostly considered to be biologically inactive. Most GSL
degradation products have toxic effects on insect, fungal, and bacterial
pests, serve as attractants for specialist insects, or may have beneficial
health effects for humans
(10–15).
The enzymatic degradation of GSLs (Fig.
1A), which occurs massively upon tissue damage, is
catalyzed by plant thioglucosidases called myrosinases (EC 3.2.1.147;
glycoside hydrolase family 1). Depending on several factors (e.g. GSL
structure, proteins, cofactors, pH) myrosinase-catalyzed hydrolysis of GSLs
can lead to a variety of products (Fig.
1B; for review, see Refs.
16 and
17). Of these, isothiocyanates
are the most common as their formation only requires myrosinase activity.
Thiocyanates on the other hand are only produced from a very limited number of
GSLs, and their formation necessitates the presence of a thiocyanate-forming
factor in addition to myrosinase
(18). A thiocyanate-forming
protein (TFP) has recently been identified in Lepidium sativum
(19). Alkenyl GSLs, a subgroup
of aliphatic GSLs containing a terminal unsaturation in their side chain, can
lead to the production of epithionitriles through the cooperative action of
myrosinase and a protein called epithiospecifier protein (ESP
(20)) in a ferrous
ion-dependent way
(21–23).
Both TFP and ESP contain a series of Kelch repeats
(19). Kelch repeats are
involved in protein-protein interactions, and Kelch repeat-containing proteins
are involved in a number of diverse biological processes
(24). In addition to
isothiocyanates, nitriles are the major group of GSL hydrolysis products.
Although ESP and TFP activities can generate nitriles
(19,
21,
25,
26), indications for an
ESP-independent nitrile-specifier activity exist. The GSL hydrolysis profile
of A. thaliana roots, an organ that does not show ESP expression or
activity (27), reveals
predominantly the presence of nitriles
(28). In addition, leaf tissue
of A. thaliana ecotypes supposedly devoid of ESP activity produces a
certain amount of nitriles upon autolysis
(21). Under acidic buffer
conditions, a non-enzymatic production of nitriles from GSLs is observed (Ref.
29 and references therein).
Increasing Fe2+ concentrations have also been shown to favor
nitrile formation over isothiocyanate formation from a number of GSLs in the
presence of myrosinase and absence of ESP
(21,
22). Therefore, a
non-enzymatic origin of this nitrile production cannot be excluded, although
the presence of a nitrile-specifier protein is a tempting alternative.
Although ESP is able to generate nitriles, it has also been shown that the
conversion rates of GSLs to nitriles are lower than those of GSLs to
epithionitriles for ESP (21,
22).Open in a separate windowFIGURE 1.Simplified scheme of enzymatic GSL hydrolysis (A) and
structures and names of GSLs and their hydrolysis products that are mentioned
in the article. (B). A, myrosinase acts on GSLs to form
an unstable aglycone intermediate that can rearrange spontaneously to form an
isothiocyanate. Hydrolysis can be diverted from this default route under
certain conditions (e.g. the presence of NSPs, ferrous ions, or at pH
< 5) to give the corresponding nitrile. ESP is responsible for the
formation of epithionitriles from alkenyl GSLs in a ferrous ion-dependent
mechanism. B, the general structure of GSLs, indicating the variable
side chain as R, is given as well as the three major classes of hydrolysis
products (i.e. isothiocyanates, nitriles, and epithionitriles). The
listed GSLs are the ones mentioned in this article and are arranged according
to the class of GSLs they belong to and with an increase in chain length or
complexity. The names of the respective hydrolysis products are given for a
better understanding of the present article, and not all were encountered
during our studies.A nitrile-specifier protein (NSP) that is able to redirect the hydrolysis
of GSLs toward nitriles has been cloned from the larvae of the butterfly
Pieris rapae (30).
This protein does not, however, exhibit sequence similarity to plant ESP, and
a corresponding plant nitrile-specifier protein has not yet been identified.
We report here the identification of a group of six A. thaliana genes
with some sequence similarity to A. thaliana ESP, providing evidence
for a new family of nitrile-specifier proteins and a more detailed
characterization of one member that possesses nitrile-specifier activity
in vitro, when applied exogenously to plant tissue and after ectopic
expression in the two A. thaliana ecotypes Col-0 and C24. Despite its
sequence homology to A. thaliana epithiospecifier protein (AtESP), it
does not possess epithiospecifier activity under similar conditions.
Therefore, we propose to designate this protein as A. thaliana
nitrile-specifier protein 2 (AtNSP2). Although the biological roles of AtNSP2
and related proteins are not yet known, their specificities and distinctive
expression patterns indicate the presence of a fine-tuned mechanism for GSL
degradation controlling the outcome of an array of biologically active
molecules. 相似文献
16.
17.
Akiko Maeda Tadao Maeda Marcin Golczak Steven Chou Amar Desai Charles L. Hoppel Shigemi Matsuyama Krzysztof Palczewski 《The Journal of biological chemistry》2009,284(22):15173-15183
Exposure to bright light can cause visual dysfunction and retinal
photoreceptor damage in humans and experimental animals, but the mechanism(s)
remain unclear. We investigated whether the retinoid cycle (i.e. the
series of biochemical reactions required for vision through continuous
generation of 11-cis-retinal and clearance of
all-trans-retinal, respectively) might be involved. Previously, we
reported that mice lacking two enzymes responsible for clearing
all-trans-retinal, namely photoreceptor-specific ABCA4 (ATP-binding
cassette transporter 4) and RDH8 (retinol dehydrogenase 8), manifested retinal
abnormalities exacerbated by light and associated with accumulation of
diretinoid-pyridinium-ethanolamine (A2E), a condensation product of
all-trans-retinal and a surrogate marker for toxic retinoids. Now we
show that these mice develop an acute, light-induced retinopathy. However,
cross-breeding these animals with lecithin:retinol acyltransferase knock-out
mice lacking retinoids within the eye produced progeny that did not exhibit
such light-induced retinopathy until gavaged with the artificial chromophore,
9-cis-retinal. No significant ocular accumulation of A2E occurred
under these conditions. These results indicate that this acute light-induced
retinopathy requires the presence of free all-trans-retinal and not,
as generally believed, A2E or other retinoid condensation products. Evidence
is presented that the mechanism of toxicity may include plasma membrane
permeability and mitochondrial poisoning that lead to caspase activation and
mitochondria-associated cell death. These findings further understanding of
the mechanisms involved in light-induced retinal degeneration.The retinoid cycle is a fundamental metabolic process in the vertebrate
retina responsible for continuous generation of 11-cis-retinal from
its all-trans-isomer
(1-3).
Because 11-cis-retinal is the chromophore of rhodopsin and cone
visual pigments (4), disabling
mutations in genes encoding proteins of the retinoid cycle can cause a
spectrum of retinal diseases affecting sight
(3). Moreover, the efficiency
of the mammalian visual system and health of photoreceptors and retinal
pigment epithelium
(RPE)2 decrease
significantly with age. Even in the presence of a functional retinoid cycle,
A2E, retinal dimer (RALdi), and other toxic all-trans-retinal
condensation products
(5-7)
can accumulate as a consequence of aging
(8). Under experimental
conditions, these compounds can produce toxic effects on RPE cells
(9-11).
Patients affected by age-related macular degeneration, Stargardt disease, or
other retinal diseases associated with accumulation of surrogate markers, such
as A2E, all develop retinal degeneration
(12). Thus, elucidating the
fundamental causes of these age-dependent changes is of increasing importance.
Encouragingly, our understanding of both retinoid metabolism outside the eye
and production of 11-cis-retinal unique to the eye has accelerated
recently (Scheme 1)
(1-3),
and genetic mouse models are readily available to study these processes and
their potential aberrations in vivo
(13). Thus, a central question
can be addressed, namely what initiates the death of photoreceptor cells and
the underlining RPE?Open in a separate windowSCHEME 1.Retinoid flow and all-trans-retinal clearance in the visual
cycle. After diffusion from the RPE, the visual chromophore,
11-cis-retinal, combines with rhodopsin and then is photoisomerized
to all-trans-retinal. Most of the all-trans-retinal
dissociates from opsin into the cytoplasm, where it is reduced to
all-trans-retinol by RDHs, including RDH8. The fraction of
all-trans-retinal that dissociates into the disc lumen is transported
by ABCA4 into the cytoplasm
(23) before it is reduced.
All-trans-retinol then is translocated to the RPE, esterified by
LRAT, and recycled back to 11-cis-retinal. Mutations of ABCA4 are
associated with human macular degeneration, Stargardt disease, and age-related
macular degeneration (55,
56).Several mechanisms associated with retinoid metabolism may contribute to
different retinopathies (1).
For example, lack of retinoids in LRAT (lecithin:retinol acyltransferase) or
chromophore in retinoid isomerase knock-out (Rpe65-/-)
mice leads to rapid degeneration of cone photoreceptors and slowly progressive
death of rods (14). Such mice
do not produce toxic condensation products from all-trans-retinal.
Instead, their retinopathies have been attributed to continuous activation of
visual phototransduction (15)
due to either the basal activity of opsin
(16-18)
or disordered vectorial transport of cone visual pigments without bound
chromophore (19).
Paradoxically, an abnormally high flux of retinoids through the retinoid cycle
can also lead to retinopathy in other mouse models
(20,
21). Animal models featuring
anomalies in the retinoid cycle illustrate the importance of chromophore
regeneration and provide an approach to elucidating mechanisms involved in
human retinal dysfunction and disease.Recently, we showed that mice carrying a double knock-out of Rdh8
(retinol dehydrogenase 8), one of the main enzymes that reduces
all-trans-retinal in rod and cone outer segments
(22), and Abca4
(ATP-binding cassette transporter 4), which transports
all-trans-retinal from the inside to the outside of disc membranes
(23), rapidly accumulate
all-trans-retinal condensation products and exhibit accentuated
RPE/photoreceptor dystrophy at an early age
(24). Although these studies
suggest retinoid toxicity, it is still unclear if the elevated levels of
retinal and/or its condensation products, such as A2E, are the cause of this
retinopathy or merely a nonspecific reflection of impaired retinoid
metabolism. Here, we report that spent chromophore,
all-trans-retinal, is most likely responsible for photoreceptor
degeneration in Rdh8-/-Abca4-/- mice.
Toxic effects of all-trans-retinal include caspase activation and
mitochondria-associated cell death. 相似文献
18.
19.
Michael A. Gitcho Jeffrey Strider Deborah Carter Lisa Taylor-Reinwald Mark S. Forman Alison M. Goate Nigel J. Cairns 《The Journal of biological chemistry》2009,284(18):12384-12398
Frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) with inclusion body myopathy and
Paget disease of bone is a rare, autosomal dominant disorder caused by
mutations in the VCP (valosin-containing protein) gene. The disease
is characterized neuropathologically by frontal and temporal lobar atrophy,
neuron loss and gliosis, and ubiquitin-positive inclusions (FTLD-U), which are
distinct from those seen in other sporadic and familial FTLD-U entities. The
major component of the ubiquitinated inclusions of FTLD with VCP
mutation is TDP-43 (TAR DNA-binding protein of 43 kDa). TDP-43 proteinopathy
links sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, sporadic FTLD-U, and most
familial forms of FTLD-U. Understanding the relationship between individual
gene defects and pathologic TDP-43 will facilitate the characterization of the
mechanisms leading to neurodegeneration. Using cell culture models, we have
investigated the role of mutant VCP in intracellular trafficking,
proteasomal function, and cell death and demonstrate that mutations in the
VCP gene 1) alter localization of TDP-43 between the nucleus and
cytosol, 2) decrease proteasome activity, 3) induce endoplasmic reticulum
stress, 4) increase markers of apoptosis, and 5) impair cell viability. These
results suggest that VCP mutation-induced neurodegeneration is
mediated by several mechanisms.Frontotemporal lobar degeneration
(FTLD)2
accounts for 10% of all late onset dementias and is the third most frequent
neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer disease and dementia with Lewy
bodies (1). FTLD with
ubiquitin-immunoreactive inclusions is genetically, clinically, and
neuropathologically heterogeneous
(2,
3). FTLD-U comprises several
distinct entities, including sporadic forms and familial cases caused by
mutations in the genes encoding VCP (valosin-containing protein), GRN
(progranulin), CHMP2B (charged multivesicular body protein 2B), TDP-43 (TAR
DNA-binding protein of 43 kDa) and an unknown gene linked to chromosome 9
(2,
3). Frontotemporal dementia
with inclusion body myopathy and Paget disease of bone is a rare, autosomal
dominant disorder caused by mutations in the VCP gene located on
chromosome 9p13-p12
(4-10)
(Fig. 1). This multisystem
disease is characterized by progressive muscle weakness and atrophy, increased
osteoclastic bone resorption, and early onset frontotemporal dementia, also
called FTLD (9,
11). Mutations in VCP
are also associated with dilatative cardiomyopathy with ubiquitin-positive
inclusions (12).
Neuropathologic features of FTLD with VCP mutation include frontal
and temporal lobar atrophy, neuron loss and gliosis, and ubiquitin-positive
inclusions (FTLD-U). The majority of aggregates are ubiquitin- and
TDP-43-positive neuronal intranuclear inclusions (NIIs); a smaller proportion
is made up of TDP-43-immunoreactive dystrophic neurites (DNs) and neuronal
cytoplasmic inclusions (NCIs). A small number of inclusions are
VCP-immunoreactive (5,
13). Pathologic TDP-43 in
inclusions links a spectrum of diseases in which TDP-43 pathology is a primary
feature, including FTLD-U, motor neuron disease, including amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis, FTLD with motor neuron disease, and inclusion body myopathy and
Paget disease of bone, as well as an expanding spectrum of other disorders in
which TDP-43 pathology is secondary
(14,
15).Open in a separate windowFIGURE 1.Model of pathogenic mutations and domains in valosin-containing
protein. CDC48 (magenta), located within the N terminus (residues
22-108), binds the following cofactors: p47, gp78, and Npl4-Ufd1
(23-25,
28). There are two AAA-ATPase
domains (AAA; blue) at residues 240-283 and 516-569, which
are joined by two linker regions (L1 and L2;
red).TDP-43 proteinopathy in FTLD with VCP mutation has a biochemical
signature similar to that seen in other sporadic and familial cases of FTLD-U,
including sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, FTLD-motor neuron disease,
FTLD with progranulin (GRN) mutation, and FTLD linked to chromosome
9p (3,
16). TDP-43 proteinopathy in
these disorders is characterized by hyperphosphorylation of TDP-43,
ubiquitination, and cleavage to form C-terminal fragments detected only in
insoluble brain extracts from affected brain regions
(16). Identification of TDP-43
as the major component of the ubiquitin-immunoreactive inclusions of FTLD with
VCP mutation supports the hypothesis that VCP gene mutations
cause an alteration of VCP function, leading to TDP-43 proteinopathy.VCP/p97 (valosin-containing protein) is a member of the AAA (ATPase
associated with diverse cellular activities) superfamily. The N-terminal
domain of VCP has been shown to be involved in cofactor binding (CDC48 (cell
division cycle protein 48)) and two AAA-ATPase domains that form a hexameric
complex (Fig. 1)
(17). Recently, it has been
shown that the N-terminal domain of VCP binds phosphoinositides
(18,
19). AKT (activated
serine-threonine protein kinase) phosphorylates VCP and is required for
constitutive VCP function (20,
21). AKT is activated through
phospholipid binding and phosphorylation via the phosphoinositide 3-kinase
signaling pathway, which is involved in cell survival
(22). The lipid binding domain
may recruit VCP to the cell membrane where it is phosphorylated by AKT
(19).The diversity of VCP functions is modulated, in part, by a variety of
intracellular cofactors, including p47, gp78, and Npl4-Ufd1
(23). Cofactor p47 has been
shown to play a role in the maintenance and biogenesis of both the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus
(24). The structure of p47
contains a ubiquitin regulatory X domain that binds the N-terminus of VCP, and
together they act as a chaperone to deliver membrane fusion machinery to the
site of adjacent membranes
(25). The function of the
p47-VCP complex is dependent upon cell division cycle 2 (CDC2)
serine-threonine kinase phosphorylation of p47
(26,
27). Also, VCP has been found
to interact with the cytosolic tail of gp78, an ER membrane-spanning E3
ubiquitin ligase that exclusively binds VCP and enhances ER-associated
degradation (ERAD) (28). The
Npl4-Ufd1-VCP complex is involved in nuclear envelope assembly and targeting
of proteins through the ubiquitin-proteasome system
(29,
30). The cell survival
response of this complex has been found to be important in DNA damage repair
though activation by phosphorylation and its recruitment to double-stranded
breaks (20,
31). The Npl4-Ufd1-VCP
cytosolic complex is also recruited to the ER membrane, interacting with
Derlin 1, VCP-interacting membrane proteins (VIMP), and other complexes. At
the ER membrane, these misfolded proteins are targeted to the proteasome via
ERAD
(32-34).
VCP also targets IKKβ for ubiquitination to the ubiquitin-proteasome
system, implicating VCP in the cell survival pathway and neuroprotection
(21,
35-37).To investigate the mechanism of neurodegeneration caused by VCP
mutations, we first tested the hypothesis that VCP mutations decrease
cell viability in vitro using a neuroblastoma SHSY-5Y cell line and
then investigated cellular pathways that are known to lead to
neurodegeneration, including decrease in proteasome activity, caspase-mediated
degeneration, and a change in cellular localization of TDP-43. 相似文献
20.
Douglas A. Mitchell Shaun W. Lee Morgan A. Pence Andrew L. Markley Joyce D. Limm Victor Nizet Jack E. Dixon 《The Journal of biological chemistry》2009,284(19):13004-13012
The human pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes secretes a highly
cytolytic toxin known as streptolysin S (SLS). SLS is a key virulence
determinant and responsible for the β-hemolytic phenotype of these
bacteria. Despite over a century of research, the chemical structure of SLS
remains unknown. Recent experiments have revealed that SLS is generated from
an inactive precursor peptide that undergoes extensive post-translational
modification to an active form. In this work, we address outstanding questions
regarding the SLS biosynthetic process, elucidating the features of substrate
recognition and sites of posttranslational modification to the SLS precursor
peptide. Further, we exploit these findings to guide the design of artificial
cytolytic toxins that are recognized by the SLS biosynthetic enzymes and
others that are intrinsically cytolytic. This new structural information has
ramifications for future antimicrobial therapies.Streptolysin S
(SLS)4 is secreted by
the human pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes, the causative agent of
diseases ranging from pharyngitis to necrotizing fasciitis
(1). SLS is a potent cytolysin
that is ribosomally synthesized, extensively posttranslationally modified, and
exported to exert its effects on the target cell
(2,
3). The expression of SLS
promotes virulence in animal models of invasive infection and accounts for the
hall-mark zone of β-hemolysis surrounding colonies of these bacteria
grown on blood agar (2,
4). An intriguing feature of
SLS is its nonimmunogenic nature
(5). This characteristic is
likely due to its small size and its capacity to lyse cells involved in both
innate and adaptive immunity
(6,
7). The β-hemolytic
phenotype of S. pyogenes has been studied since the early 1900s, but
the molecular structure of SLS has remained elusive
(8). In the last decade,
transposon mutagenesis studies identified the gene encoding the SLS toxin
precursor (sagA, for SLS-associated gene) and eight additional genes
in an operon required for toxin maturation and export
(9). Targeted mutagenesis of
the sag operon yields nonhemolytic S. pyogenes mutants with
markedly diminished virulence in mice
(2). More recently, it was
demonstrated that the protein products of sagA–D are sufficient
for the in vitro reconstitution of cytolytic activity
(3). The first gene product,
SagA, serves as a structural template that after a series of tailoring
reactions matures into the active SLS metabolite (see
Fig. 1A). A trimeric
complex of SagBCD catalyzes these tailoring reactions, which results in the
conversion of cysteine, serine, and threonine residues to thiazole, oxazole,
and methyloxazole heterocycles, respectively
(3).Open in a separate windowFIGURE 1.SagBCD substrate recognition is provided by the SagA leader peptide.
A, SagA is converted into an active cytolysin, pro-streptolysin-S
(pro-SLS), by the actions of SagBCD (a trimeric oxazole/thiazole
synthetase). Heterocycles are schematically represented as shaded
pentagons. A marginally conserved motif in the SagA leader peptide,
FXXXB (where B is a branched chain amino acid), is highlighted in
red. Individual reactions catalyzed by SagC (cyclodehydratase) and
SagB (FMN-dehydrogenase) are shown. B, representative amino acid
sequences and cytolytic activity of SagA-like substrates. Shown in
red are leader peptide residues that comprise the FXXXB
motif. The putative leader peptide cleavage sites are shown as
asterisks, except for McbA, where the site is known
(hyphen). In blue are sites of potential heterocycle
formation (for McbA, known sites are blue). The percentage of amino
acid similarity to full-length SagA (as determined by ClustalW alignment) is
given. The cytolytic activity was tested for these substrates in
vitro using purified proteins and in vivo using the
SLS-deficient strain, S. pyogenes ΔsagA, complemented
with the desired substrate. Activity equal to wild type SagA is designated as
(+++); activity that is 30–70% of wild type SagA is (++); detectable
activity that is less than 30% of SagA is noted as (+); and nondetectable
activity is (-). The activity for McbA is not applicable (n.a.)
because this secondary metabolite is a DNA gyrase inhibitor, not a cytolysin.
C, sequences and lytic activity of mutant substrates. All of the
substrates contain the wild type SagA leader peptide, except for the first
entry (FXXXB mutant, SagA-FIA). The percentage of amino acid
similarity to the protoxin half of SagA is shown. The second and third entries
are SagA leader peptides fused to the protoxin of StaphA and ListA. SagX is an
artificially designed toxin, whereas the inverse and scrambled substrates
manipulate the sequence of SagA between residues 33–50
(underlined).A DNA gyrase inhibitor, microcin B17, is produced by an orthologous
biosynthetic cluster (mcb) found in a subset of Escherichia
coli strains
(10–12).
Microcin B17 contains four thiazole and four oxazole heterocycles, which are
indispensable for biological activity. By analogy to microcin B17 and the
lantibiotics, the heterocycles of SLS are formed on the C terminus of SagA,
whereas the N terminus serves as a leader peptide
(13–15).
The installation of thiazole and (methyl)-oxazole heterocycles restricts
backbone conformational flexibility and provides microcin B17 and SLS with
rigidified structures. The SLS heterocycles are formed via two distinct steps;
SagC, a cyclodehydratase, generates thiazoline and (methyl)-oxazoline
heterocycles, whereas SagB, a dehydrogenase, removes two electrons to afford
the aromatic thiazole and (methyl)-oxazole
(3,
16,
17). SagD is proposed to play
a role in trimer formation and regulation (see
Fig. 1A). The final
genes in the genetic cluster encode a predicted leader peptidase/immunity
protein (SagE), a membrane-associated protein of unknown function (SagF), and
three ABC transporters (SagGHI).It is now appreciated that many other prokaryotes harbor similar genetic
clusters for the synthesis of thiazole and (methyl)-oxazole heterocycles
(3,
18,
19). Additional important
mammalian pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus
aureus, and Clostridium botulinum, contain sag-like
gene clusters that produce SLS-like cytolysins. These toxins are expected to
promote pathogen survival and host cell injury during infection, but this has
only been conclusively shown for S. pyogenes and L.
monocytogenes (2,
18). Like E. coli,
many other prokaryotes harbor a sag-like genetic cluster but are not
known to produce cytolysins. Some examples are the goadsporin-producing
organism, Streptomyces sp. TP-A0584 and cyanobactin producers such as
Prochloron didemni
(20–22).
The molecular targets of these secondary metabolites remain to be elucidated,
but it is known that goadsporin exhibits antibiotic activity, and the
cyanobactin, patellamide D, reverses multiple drug resistance in a human
leukemia cell line (23).
Because genetic loci containing sagBCD-like genes have been widely
disseminated in prokaryotes
(3), nature appears to have
found a preferred route to synthesizing such secondary metabolites.In this work, we build upon our initial report on the in vitro
reconstitution of SLS biosynthesis to uncover the requisite features of
substrate selectivity and cytolytic activity. The impetus for defining
substrate tolerance arose from earlier results showing that SagBCD accepts
alternate substrates in vitro
(3), as evidenced by two key
experiments. First, SagBCD converted a noncognate substrate, ClosA (C.
botulinum), into a cytolytic entity. Second, mass spectrometry revealed
heterocycle formation on the McbA (E. coli) peptide after SagBCD
treatment (3). Here, we dissect
the N-terminal leader peptide and C-terminal protoxin of SagA to define the
residues necessary for conversion into SLS. 相似文献