Recent European measurements inside Biorack

The dosimetric package used inside Biorack on board STS76, STS81 and STS84 comprises passive detector stacks built from plastic nuclear track detectors (PNTDs), thermoluminescence detectors (TLDs) and one or two active DOSTEL (DOSimetric TELescope) units using planar silicon detectors. Five passive detector stacks were exposed at different places inside the BIORACK incubators and in different stowage positions. DOSTEL units were exposed inside the 22 degrees C incubator in all flights. Mission integrated dose measurements, particle fluence rates and neutron doses are obtained from the passive detector stacks. These results are complemented by time resolved particle counts and dose rates and linear energy transfer (LET) spectra separately for the contribution of the trapped particles and the galactic cosmic rays (GCR) as a result of the DOSTEL measurements. In addition, it was possible to investigate the anisotropy of the radiation field inside Biorack by the use of a second DOSTEL unit on STS84. Since all exposures are during a solar minimum period, the total radiation exposure is of a similar extent for all flights, although position differences in dose rate up to a factor of two are observed. Particle fluence rates show lower variations. Mission averaged mean quality factors (Q) determined from the LET spectra are 2.0+/-0.1; the deduced dose equivalent rates range from 631 to 716 microSv/day.     

Monte Carlo determination of a nanoDot OSLD response using quality index for diagnostic kilovoltage X-ray beams

PurposeThis study aims to investigate the energy response of an optically stimulated luminescent dosimeter known as nanoDot for diagnostic kilovoltage X-ray beams via Monte Carlo calculations.MethodsThe nanoDot response is calculated as a function of X-ray beam quality in free air and on a water phantom surface using Monte Carlo simulations. The X-ray fluence spectra are classified using the quality index (QI), which is defined as the ratio of the effective energy to the maximum energy of the photons. The response is calculated for X-ray fluence spectra with QIs of 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6 with tube voltages of 50–137.6 kVp and monoenergetic photon beams. The surface dose estimated using the calculated response is verified by comparing it with that measured using an ionization chamber.ResultsThe nanoDot response in free air for monoenergetic photon beams (QI = 1.0) varies significantly at photon energies below 100 keV and reaches a factor of 3.6 at 25–30 keV. The response differs by up to approximately 6% between QIs of 0.4 and 0.6 for the same half-value layer (HVL). The response at the phantom surface decreases slightly owing to the backscatter effect, and it is almost independent of the field size. The agreement between the surface dose estimated using the nanoDot and that measured using the ionization chamber for assessing X-ray beam qualities is less than 2%.ConclusionsThe nanoDot response is indicated as a function of HVL for the specified QIs, and it enables the direct surface dose measurement.     

Effect of anode angle on photon beam spectra and depth dose characteristics for X-RAD320 orthovoltage unit

Background

In radiation therapy with orthovoltage units, the tube design has a crucial effect on its dosimetric features.

Aim

In this study, the effect of anode angle on photon beam spectra, depth dose and photon fluence per initial electron was studied for a commercial orthovoltage unit of X-RAD320 biological irradiator.

Materials and methods

The MCNPX MC code was used for modeling in the current study. We used the Monte Carlo method to model the X-RAD320 X-ray unit based on the manufacturer provided information. The MC model was validated by comparing the MC calculated photon beam spectra with the results of SpekCalc software. The photon beam spectra were calculated for anode angles from 15 to 35 degrees. We also calculated the percentage depth doses for some angles to verify the impact of anode angle on depth dose. Additionally, the heel effect and its relation with anode angle were studied for X-RAD320 irradiator.

Results

Our results showed that the photon beam spectra and their mean energy are changed significantly with anode angle and the optimum anode angle of 30 degrees was selected based on less heel effect and appropriate depth dose and photon fluence per initial electron.

Conclusion

It can be concluded that the anode angle of 30 degrees for X-RAD320 unit used by manufacturer has been selected properly considering the heel effect and dosimetric properties.     

On a new multi-source X-ray tube concept for minimizing imaging time in digital breast tomosynthesis

Replacing moving mechanics in computed tomography (CT) and digital breast tomosynthesis (DBT) has inspired numerous projects to develop alternative X-ray sources. While less suitable for CT, DBT is a viable target application for the multi-X-ray-source array tube suggested in Becker, A.E., et al. (2020): A prototype Multi-X-ray-source array (MXA) for digital breast tomosynthesis. Physics in Medicine & Biology, 65(23), 235033. The proposed prototype MXA tube comprises rotating anode disks and a set of thermionic grid switchable cathodes. It is a first-of-a-kind X-ray tube emitting brake radiation (Bremsstrahlung), developed to minimize exposure times for DBT down to the limits set by the dynamics of the employed flat panel detectors. This commentary takes a closer look at the above article and the presented concept. The MXA is expected to be scalable for long service life. The technology has potential for further extension beyond the primary target application of mammography tomosynthesis.     

Radiobiology of alpha particles. I. Exposure system and dosimetry

A 238Pu alpha-particle exposure apparatus was designed and constructed for use in radiobiological studies with cultured cell systems. The system provides a wide dynamic range of absorbed doses and a uniform radiation field. Average dose rate in air was measured with a small-volume ionization chamber. Estimates of dose rate at the cell surface were obtained from measurements taken with a silicon surface barrier detector. Particle fluence uniformity and fluence rate were measured using track etch procedures. The design and dosimetric characterization of the apparatus are discussed.     

Method for determining the half-value layer in computed tomography scans using a real-time dosimeter: Application to dual-source dual-energy acquisition

PurposeWe have proposed a method for determining the half-value layers (HVL) in dual-source dual-energy computed tomography (DS-DECT) scans without the need for the X-ray tubes to be fixed.MethodsA custom-made lead-covered case and an ionizing chamber connected with a multi-function digitizer module (a real-time dosimeter) were used. The chamber was placed in the center of the case, and aluminum or copper filters were placed in front of the aperture. The HVL was measured using aperture widths of 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 cm for tube potentials of 80, 120, and 150 kV in single-source single-energy CT (SS-SECT) scans and was calculated from the peak air kerma rate (peak method) and the integrated air kerma rate (integrating method); the obtained values were compared with those from a conventional non-rotating method performed using the same procedure. The HVL was then measured using an aperture width of 1.0 cm for tube potential combinations of 70/Sn150 kV and 100/Sn150 kV in DS-DECT scans using the peak method.ResultsIn the SS-SECT scans, the combination of a 1.0-cm aperture and the peak method was adequate due to the small differences in the HVL values obtained for the conventional non-rotating method. The method was also found to be applicable for the DS-DECT scans.ConclusionsOur proposed method can determine the HVL in SS-SE and DS-DECT scans to a good level of accuracy without the need for the X-ray tubes to be fixed. The combination of a 1.0-cm aperture and the peak method was adequate.     

Single photon counting imagery

Advent of the multichannel plate and position sensitive detector has made possible true single photon counting imaging tubes. We have investigated the application of these detectors in studies of the ultraweak light emission of biological materials. Initially, we focussed our efforts on two objectives: (1) obtaining single photon counting images of living tissues using only the light (chemiluminescence) emitted by the specimen and (2) developing means of obtaining well-resolved spectra of weakly emitting sources. We have obtained a variety of images. One striking result of this work is the first observation of tissue specific localization of photon emission in situ. Using this detector we have also obtained the first well-resolved spectra of some important ultraweak emission processes. These results illustrate the potential use of single photon imaging in bioluminescence and chemiluminescence research.     

The fragmentation of 670A MeV neon-20 as a function of depth in water. I. Experiment

We present the final analysis of an experiment to study the interaction of a beam of 670A MeV neon ions incident on a water column set to different thicknesses. The atomic number Z (and, in some cases, the isotopic mass A) of primary beam particles and of the products of nuclear interactions emerging from the water column close to the central axis of the beam was obtained for nuclei between Be (Z = 4) and Ne (Z = 10) using a time-of-flight telescope to measure the velocity and a set of silicon detectors to measure the energy loss of each particle. The fluence of particles of a given charge was obtained and normalized to the incident beam intensity. Corrections were made for accidental coincidences between multiple particles triggering the TOF telescope and for interactions in the detector. The background due to beam particles interacting in beam line elements upstream of the detector was calculated. Sources of experimental artifacts and background in particle identification experiments designed to characterize heavy ion beams for radiobiological research are summarized, and some of the difficulties inherent in this work are discussed. Complete tables of absolutely normalized fluence spectra as a function of LET are included for reference purposes.     

An assessment of a 3D EPID-based dosimetry system using conventional two- and three-dimensional detectors for VMAT

PurposeTo provide a 3D dosimetric evaluation of a commercial portal dosimetry system using 2D/3D detectors under ideal conditions using VMAT.MethodsA 2D ion chamber array, radiochromic film and gel dosimeter were utilised to provide a dosimetric evaluation of transit phantom and pre-treatment ‘fluence’ EPID back-projected dose distributions for a standard VMAT plan. In-house 2D and 3D gamma methods compared pass statistics relative to each dosimeter and TPS dose distributions.ResultsFluence mode and transit EPID dose distributions back-projected onto phantom geometry produced 2D gamma pass rates in excess of 97% relative to other tested detectors and exported TPS dose planes when a 3%, 3 mm global gamma criterion was applied. Use of a gel dosimeter within a glass vial allowed comparison of measured 3D dose distributions versus EPID 3D dose and TPS calculated distributions. 3D gamma comparisons between modalities at 3%, 3 mm gave pass rates in excess of 92%. Use of fluence mode was indicative of transit results under ideal conditions with slightly reduced dose definition.Conclusions3D EPID back projected dose distributions were validated against detectors in both 2D and 3D. Cross validation of transit dose delivered to a patient is limited due to reasons of practicality and the tests presented are recommended as a guideline for 3D EPID dosimetry commissioning; allowing direct comparison between detector, TPS, fluence and transit modes. The results indicate achievable gamma scores for a complex VMAT plan in a homogenous phantom geometry and contributes to growing experience of 3D EPID dosimetry.     

LET dependence of the response of a PTW-60019 microDiamond detector in a 62 MeV proton beam

This study was initiated following conclusions from earlier experimental work, performed in a low-energy carbon ion beam, indicating a significant LET dependence of the response of a PTW-60019 microDiamond detector. The purpose of this paper is to present a comparison between the response of the same PTW-60019 microDiamond detector and an IBA Roos-type ionization chamber as a function of depth in a 62 MeV proton beam. Even though proton beams are considered as low linear energy transfer (LET) beams, the LET value increases slightly in the Bragg peak region. Contrary to the observations made in the carbon ion beam, in the 62 MeV proton beam good agreement is found between both detectors in both the plateau and the distal edge region. No significant LET dependent response of the PTW-60019 microDiamond detector is observed consistent with other findings for proton beams in the literature, despite this particular detector exhibiting a substantial LET dependence in a carbon ion beam.     

Principles and applications of dual source CT

This article describes the technical principles and clinical applications of dual source CT. A dual source CT (DSCT) is a CT system with two x-ray tubes and two detectors at an angle of approximately 90°. Both measurement systems acquire CT scan data simultaneously at the same anatomical level of the patient (same z-position). DSCT provides temporal resolution of approximately a quarter of the gantry rotation time for cardiac, cardio-thoracic and pediatric imaging. Successful imaging of the heart and the coronary arteries at high and variable heart rates has been demonstrated. DSCT systems can be operated at twice the spiral pitch of single source CT systems (up to pitch 3.2). The resulting high table speed is beneficial for pediatric applications and fast CT angiographic scans, e. g. of the aorta or the extremities. Operating both X-ray tubes at different tube potential (kV) enables the acquisition of dual energy data and the corresponding applications such as monoenergetic imaging and computation of material maps. Spectral separation can be improved by different filtration of the X-ray beams of both X-ray tubes. As a downside, DSCT systems have to cope with some challenges, among them the limited size of the second measurement system, and cross-scattered radiation.     

A novel method for assessment of fragmentation and beam-material interactions in helium ion radiotherapy with a miniaturized setup

Radiotherapy with protons and carbon ions enables to deliver dose distributions of high conformation to the target. Treatment with helium ions has been suggested due to their physical and biological advantages. A reliable benchmarking of the employed physics models with experimental data is required for treatment planning. However, experimental data for helium interactions is limited, in part due to the complexity and large size of conventional experimental setups.We present a novel method for the investigation of helium interactions with matter using miniaturized instrumentation based on highly integrated pixel detectors. The versatile setup consisted of a monitoring detector in front of the PMMA phantom of varying thickness and a detector stack for investigation of outgoing particles. The ion type downstream from the phantom was determined by high-resolution pattern recognition analysis of the single particle signals in the pixelated detectors. The fractions of helium and hydrogen ions behind the used targets were determined. As expected for the stable helium nucleus, only a minor decrease of the primary ion fluence along the target depth was found. E.g. the detected fraction of hydrogen ions on axis of a 220 MeV/u ⁴He beam was below 6% behind 24.5 cm of PMMA. Monte-Carlo simulations using Geant4 reproduce the experimental data on helium attenuation and yield of helium fragments qualitatively, but significant deviations were found for some combinations of target thickness and beam energy.The presented method is promising to contribute to the reduction of the uncertainty of treatment planning for helium ion radiotherapy.     

Sensitivity of the IQM and MatriXX detectors in megavolt photon beams

AimThis study focused on evaluating the sensitivity of integral quality monitoring (IQM^®) system and MatriXX detectors. These two detectors are recommended for radiotherapy pre-treatment quality assurance (QA).BackgroundIQM is a large wedged-shaped ionisation chamber mounted to the linear accelerator (linac) head in practice. MatriXX consists of an array of ionisation chambers also attached to the linac head.Materials and methodsIn this study, the dosimetric performance and sensitivity of MatriXX and IQM detectors were evaluated using the following characteristics: reproducibility, linearity, error detection capability and three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy (3D-CRT) plans of the head and neck, thorax and pelvic regions.ResultsThis study indicates that the signal responses of the large ionisation chamber device (IQM) and the small pixel array of ionisation chambers device (MatriXX) are reproducible, linear and sensitive to MLC positional errors, backup jaw positional errors and dose errors. The local percentage differences for dose errors of 1%, 2%, and 3% were, respectively, within 0.35–8.23%, 0.78–16.21%, and 1.10–24.41% for the IQM device. While for the MatriXX detector, the ranges were between 0.24–3.19, 0.57–6.43 and 0.81–12.95, respectively. Since IQM is essentially a double wedge-shaped large ionisation chamber, its reproducibility and detection capability are competitive to that of MatriXX. In addition, the sensitivity of the two QA systems increases with an increase in escalation percentage, and the signal responses are patient plan specific.ConclusionsThe two detectors response signals have good correlations and they are accurate for pre-treatment QA. Statistically, (P < 0.05) there is a significant difference between the IQM and MatriXX response to dose errors.     

The use of Pantherpix pixel detector in radiotherapy QA

There are various different detectors, which can be used for radiotherapy measurements, and more are about to be adopted. Hybrid pixel detectors (HPD) have been originally developed for the high energy physics. However, over the last few years they also expanded in the medical physics. Novel 2D detector Pantherpix is a HPD designed specifically for the radiotherapy. In this article, its properties are characterised and an assessment of its use in radiotherapy photon beams is provided. Properties such as response stability, response linearity, angular dependence and energy dependence were studied. In order to prove sufficient clinical quality for relative dosimetry, further measurements were undertaken (i.e. dose profiles and collimator scatter factors). Acquired results were compared with ion chamber and gafchromic film results. Namely the applicability of PhPix for cobalt beam therapy, which is still widely used (and will be used in near future) in economically less developed countries, is considered.     

Determination of the surface dose of a water phantom using a semiconductor detector for diagnostic kilovoltage x-ray beams

PurposeTo determine the surface dose of a water phantom using a semiconductor detector for diagnostic kilovoltage x-ray beams.MethodsAn AGMS-DM+ semiconductor detector was calibrated in terms of air kerma measured with an ionization chamber. Air kerma was measured for 20 x-ray beams with tube voltages of 50–140 kVp and a half-value layer (HVL) of 2.2–9.7 mm Al for given quality index (QI) values of 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6, and converted to the surface dose. Finally, the air kerma and HVL measured by the AGMS-DM+ detector were expressed as a ratio of the surface dose for 10 × 10 and 20 × 20 cm² fields. The ratio of both was represented as a function of HVL for the given QI values and verified by comparing it with that calculated using the Monte Carlo method.ResultsThe air kerma calibration factor, CF, for the AGMS-DM+ detector ranged from 0.986 to 1.016 (0.9% in k = 1). The CF values were almost independent of the x-ray fluence spectra for the given QI values. The ratio of the surface dose to the air kerma determined by the PTW 30,013 chamber and the AGMS-DM+ detector was less than 1.8% for the values calculated using the Monte Carlo method, and showed a good correlation with the HVL for the given QI values.ConclusionIt is possible to determine the surface dose of a water phantom from the air kerma and HVL measured by a semiconductor detector for given QI values.     

A novel concept for CT with fixed anodes (FACT): Medical imaging based on the feasibility of thermal load capacity

Focussing primarily on thermal load capacity, we describe the performance of a novel fixed anode CT (FACT) compared with a 100 kW reference CT. Being a fixed system, FACT has no focal spot blurring of the X-ray source during projection. Monte Carlo and finite element methods were used to determine the fluence proportional to thermal capacity. Studies of repeated short-time exposures showed that FACT could operate in pulsed mode for an unlimited period. A virtual model for FACT was constructed to analyse various temporal sequences for the X-ray source ring, representing a circular array of 1160 fixed anodes in the gantry. Assuming similar detector properties at a very small integration time, image quality was investigated using an image reconstruction library. Our model showed that approximately 60 gantry rounds per second, i.e. 60 sequential targetings of the 1160 anodes per second, were required to achieve a performance level equivalent to that of the reference CT (relative performance, RP = 1) at equivalent image quality. The optimal projection duration in each direction was about 10 μs. With a beam pause of 1 μs between projections, 78.4 gantry rounds per second with consecutive source activity were thermally possible at a given thermal focal spot. The settings allowed for a 1.3-fold (RP = 1.3) shorter scan time than conventional CT while maintaining radiation exposure and image quality. Based on the high number of rounds, FACT supports a high image frame rate at low doses, which would be beneficial in a wide range of diagnostic and technical applications.     

A validation of SpekPy: A software toolkit for modelling X-ray tube spectra

PurposeTo validate the SpekPy software toolkit that has been developed to estimate the spectra emitted from tungsten anode X-ray tubes. The model underlying the toolkit introduces improvements upon a well-known semi-empirical model of X-ray emission.Materials and methodsUsing the same theoretical framework as the widely-used SpekCalc software, new electron penetration data was simulated using the Monte Carlo (MC) method, alternative bremsstrahlung cross-sections were applied, L-line characteristic emissions were included, and improvements to numerical methods implemented. The SpekPy toolkit was developed with the Python programming language. The toolkit was validated against other popular X-ray spectrum models (50 to 120 kVp), X-ray spectra estimated with MC (30 to 150 kVp) as well as reference half value layers (HVL) associated with numerous radiation qualities from standard laboratories (20 to 300 kVp).ResultsThe toolkit can be used to estimate X-ray spectra that agree with other popular X-ray spectrum models for typical configurations in diagnostic radiology as well as with MC spectra over a wider range of conditions. The improvements over SpekCalc are most evident at lower incident electron energies for lightly and moderately filtered radiation qualities. Using the toolkit, estimations of the HVL over a large range of standard radiation qualities closely match reference values.ConclusionsA toolkit to estimate X-ray spectra has been developed and extensively validated for central-axis spectra. This toolkit can provide those working in Medical Physics and beyond with a powerful and user-friendly way of estimating spectra from X-ray tubes.     

COTS Silicon diodes as radiation detectors in proton and heavy charged particle radiotherapy 1

Modern radiotherapy facilities for cancer treatment such as the Heavy Ion Therapy Center (HIT) in Heidelberg, Germany, allow for sub-millimeter precision in dose deposition. For measurement of such dose distributions and characterization of the particle beams, detectors with high spatial resolution are necessary. Here, a detector based on the commercially available COTS photodiode (BPW-34) is presented. When applied in hadronic beams of protons and carbon ions, the detector reproduces dose distribution well, but its response decreases rapidly by radiation damage. However, for MeV photon beams, the detector exhibits a similar behavior as found in diode detectors usually applied in radiotherapy.     

The responses of pollen to applied electrical fields

The growing pollen tubes of tomato and tobacco were exposed to electrical fields and the effect on the direction of growth was measured. They responded by turning toward the positive electrode (anode) and gave a detectable response in fields as small as 0.1 mV/tube diameter. The sites of germination of tobacco pollen grains were also affected by applied fields; the pollen tubes tended to emerge from the anodal side. This effect was detectable at a field of 0.4 mV/grain diameter.     

A GPU Simulation Tool for Training and Optimisation in 2D Digital X-Ray Imaging

Conventional radiology is performed by means of digital detectors, with various types of technology and different performance in terms of efficiency and image quality. Following the arrival of a new digital detector in a radiology department, all the staff involved should adapt the procedure parameters to the properties of the detector, in order to achieve an optimal result in terms of correct diagnostic information and minimum radiation risks for the patient. The aim of this study was to develop and validate a software capable of simulating a digital X-ray imaging system, using graphics processing unit computing. All radiological image components were implemented in this application: an X-ray tube with primary beam, a virtual patient, noise, scatter radiation, a grid and a digital detector. Three different digital detectors (two digital radiography and a computed radiography systems) were implemented. In order to validate the software, we carried out a quantitative comparison of geometrical and anthropomorphic phantom simulated images with those acquired. In terms of average pixel values, the maximum differences were below 15%, while the noise values were in agreement with a maximum difference of 20%. The relative trends of contrast to noise ratio versus beam energy and intensity were well simulated. Total calculation times were below 3 seconds for clinical images with pixel size of actual dimensions less than 0.2 mm. The application proved to be efficient and realistic. Short calculation times and the accuracy of the results obtained make this software a useful tool for training operators and dose optimisation studies.