Phages naturally associated with the aizawai variety of insect pathogen Bacillus thuringiensis and their relevance to strain identification

Of 36 strains of the ' aizawai ' variety of Bacillus thuringiensis (H-serotype 7) 16 were naturally associated with bacteriophages, 11 of which were isolated at titres of 10⁶ plaque-forming units/ml and above. These 11 phages had varied host ranges among Bacillus cereus and five strains of the ' aizawai ' variety of B. thuringiensis. Host range, plaque morphology and differences in cold lability indicated dissimilarities between the phages, which could be used taxonomically to differentiate between strains of this bacillus.     

Spontaneous bacteriophage induction in Bacillus thuringiensis

The production of temperate bacteriophages was studied in the process of batch cultivation of three Bacillus thuringiensis lysogenic strains. Phage titres were determined using an indicator culture (IPM-1148). The growth of bacteriophages was induced when thermoactivated spores germinated. Some cells (1.10(-3)-2.10(-3)) underwent lysis without their division. The subsequent lytic cycles occurred in the actively growing culture. Phage titres ceased to rise before the exponential growth phase was over.     

Effect of the pC194 plasmid on the development of Bacillus thuringiensis phages

Bacillus thuringiensis var. galleriae strains were transformed by plasmid pC194, coding for chloramphenicol resistance (CmR). Efficiency of plating and the yields of bacteriophages Tg13 and Tg27 maturating in CmR transformant cells were decreased for 2-3 orders as compared with the ones in parental strains. The CmR transformants are characterized by the increased level of spontaneous induction of bacteriophage Tg22.     

Site-specific restrictases from Bacillus thuringiensis var. Kumantoensis]

The efficiency of bacteriophages CP-54 and CP-55 plating on Bacillus thuringiensis var. kumantoensis H18 (Kum) is decreased about 10-fold as compared with the efficiency of plating on Bacillus thuringiensis var. galleriae H5 (Gal). Bacteriophages having propagated for one cycle in Kum cells might be further grown in this strain without growth restriction. Two site-specific restriction enzymes isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis var. kumantoensis were designated BtkI and BtkII. The endonuclease BtkI recognises the same nucleotide sequence CGCG in DNA as recognised by the restriction endonuclease FnuDII; BtkII recognises the same nucleotide sequence GATC as the endonuclease Sau3A.     

Efficient transformation of Bacillus thuringiensis requires nonmethylated plasmid DNA.

The transformation efficiency of Bacillus thuringiensis depends upon the source of plasmid DNA. DNA isolated from B. thuringiensis, Bacillus megaterium, or a Dam- Dcm- Escherichia coli strain efficiently transformed several B. thuringiensis strains, B. thuringiensis strains were grouped according to which B. thuringiensis backgrounds were suitable sources of DNA for transformation of other B. thuringiensis strains, suggesting that B. thuringiensis strains differ in DNA modification and restriction. Efficient transformation allowed the demonstration of developmental regulation of cloned crystal protein genes in B. thuringiensis.     

Variability of Bacillus thuringiensis bacteriophages with C2-morphology

Biological as well as physicochemical properties of Bacillus thuringiensis bacteriophages "17" and "7/13" having C2-morphology and isolated from factory phagolysates were studied. The bacteriophages are identical in the lytic spectrum++, morphology, size, GC-content, have the same buoyant density. The physical map for restriction endonucleases EcoRI, HindIII, SalGI and MvaI has been constructed of the bacteriophages DNA. Heteroduplex analysis has revealed the nonhomologous region of the deletion-insertion type as a 0.8 Md loop. The bacteriophages "17" and "7/13" are concluded to be closely related but not identical.     

Characterization and pathogenic evaluation of Bacillus thuringiensis and Bacillus sphaericus isolates from Argentinean soils

Eighty soil samples of different origin (from urban, agricultural, forested and horticultural areas) which had not previously been treated with bioinsecticides, were collected and examined to investigate the presence of Bacillus thuringiensis and B. sphaericus. From a total of 1473 bacterial isolates examined by differential staining techniques and growth on nutrient agar with the addition of penicillin and streptomycin, 31 (2.1%) strains of Bacillus sphaericus and 25 (1.6%) strains of Bacillus thuringiensis were isolated. These strains were tested for their pathogenicity against Diptera (Culex quinquefasciatus) and Lepidoptera (Anticarsia gemmatalis and Spodoptera frugiperda). Seven strains of Bacillus thuringiensis subspecies kurstaki were found to be pathogenic to Spodoptera frugiperda and twenty-two strains showed a pathological effect against Anticarsia gemmatalis. None of the strains of Bacillus thuringiensis nor the Bacillus sphaericus investigated, showed pathogenic activity against Culex quinquefasciatus. The strains of Bacillus thuringiensis were characterized serologically as belonging to six serotypes (darmstadiensis, entomocidus, kurstaki, muju, sotto and xianguangiensis). One strain seemed to be a new serotype. The electrophoretic profiles of the strains of Bacillus thruringiensis showed bands of 130 kDa similar to those found in strains pathogenic against Lepidoptera. Some physicochemical characteristics were also studied in the soil samples, in order to relate them to the presence or absence of these Bacillus species.     

Fate of Bacillus thuringiensis strains in different insect larvae

In favorable conditions Bacillus thuringiensis spores germinate and vegetative cells multiply, whereas in unfavorable conditions Bacillus thuringiensis sporulates and produces insecticidal crystal proteins. The development of B. thuringiensis strains was investigated in the larvae of insects belonging to the orders Lepidoptera and Diptera. Bacillus thuringiensis strains able to kill the insects did not always multiply in cadavers. Strains with no specificity to kill the insect sometimes multiplied when the insects were killed mechanically. These results indicate that some insect larvae represent an environment that favors the germination of B. thuringiensis spores and the multiplication of vegetative cells; however, there was no correlation between the toxin specificity and the specificity of the host.     

Bacteriophages of Bacillus polymyxa

Virulent bacteriophages of colistin--producing Bacillus polymyxa strains were studied. The phages were found to differ in lytic spectrum and were active only against strains of B. polymyxa. They did not attack other strains of the genus Bacillus. The virulent bacteriophages belong to two morphological groups differing in size. The size of the DNA of the bacteriophages of both groups is similar and ranges from 74.9 X 10(6) to 87.8 X 10(6) daltons. The cells of different B. polymyxa strains were also found to carry various defective phages which could be shown after mitomycin C induction of cell cultures. The antibacterial activity of mitomycin C induced cell lysates was not detected. Strains of B. polymyxa most probably devoid of defective bacteriophages (delysogenized) were isolated.     

Homologous and heterologous transcription of the Cry+-plasmid in Bacillus thuringiensis

The possibility of homologous and heterologous transception of Cry+ plasmids in Bacillus thuringiensis is demonstrated. Cry+ plasmids from crystal bearing strain of Bacillus thuringiensis were transferred into acrystalline strain belonging to H5 serotype by mutual incubation. The donor strain was previously marked by the transmissive plasmid pAM beta 1 coding for erythromycin and lincomycin resistance. The transcipients having acquired the ability to synthesize delta-endotoxin were referred to H5 serotype due to their phenotype. By analogous method Cry+ plasmid was transferred from Bacillus thuringiensis to Bacillus cereus. Bacillus cereus strain GP7 was used as a recipient strain resistant to tetracycline. The presence of delta-endotoxin in transcipients was confirmed by bioprobes and immunoenzyme assay. To prove the transfer of Cry+ plasmid the plasmid profiles of the parent strains and transcipients have been analyzed. The formation of cellular contacts during mutual incubation of Bacillus thuringiensis and Bacillus cereus strains was demonstrated by electron microscopic study of ultrafine cuts.     

Identification and characterization of strains of Bacillus thuringiensis by genomic fingerprinting using biotinylated phage M13 DNA]

Genomic DNA of the entomopathogenic bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis was analyzed by the genomic fingerprinting technique. The biotin-labeled single-stranded DNA of the phage M13 was used as a marker of hypervariable sequences. A procedure for analyzing the differentiation among various Bacillus thuringiensis strains was developed. Characteristic patterns of fingerprints were obtained for several strains, the main representatives of subspecies that are most frequently used in the manufacture of bacterial insecticides, such as subsp. thuringiensis, subsp. kurstaki, and subsp. galleriae. Because no essential differences were revealed in band patterns upon comparing fingerprints of crystal-producing bacterial strains with those of acrystallic mutants, it was assumed that the loss of crystal-producing ability in the insect pathogen Bacillus thuringiensis is not connected with significant rearrangement of its genome.     

Genetic relationships between sympatric populations of Bacillus cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis, as revealed by rep-PCR genomic fingerprinting

The bacterial strain Bacillus cereus is closely related to Bacillus thuringiensis, although any genetic relationship between the two strains is still in debate. Using rep-PCR genomic fingerprinting, we established the genetic relationships between Brazilian sympatric populations of B. cereus and B. thuringiensis simultaneously collected from two geographically separate sites. We observed the formation of both B. thuringiensis and B. cereus clusters, as well as strains of B. cereus that are more closely related to B. thuringiensis than to other B. cereus strains. In addition, lower genetic variability was observed among B. thuringiensis clusters compared to B. cereus clusters, indicating that either the two species should be categorized as separate or that B. thuringiensis may represent a clone from a B. cereus background.     

Comparative analysis of the 16S to 23S ribosomal intergenic spacer sequences of Bacillus thuringiensis strains and subspecies and of closely related species.

Bacillus thuringiensis spacer regions between the 16S and 23S rRNAs were amplified with conserved primers, designated 19-mer and 23-mer primers. A spacer region of 144 bp was determined for all of 6 B. thuringiensis strains, 7 B. thuringiensis subspecies, and 11 B. thuringiensis field isolates, as well as for the closely related species Bacillus cereus and Bacillus anthracis. Computer analysis and alignment of nucleotide sequences identified three mutations and one deletion in the intergenic spacer region (ISR) of B. thuringiensis subsp. kurstaki HD-1 when compared with ISR sequences from other subspecies. The same differences were identified between the ISR of B. thuringiensis strains and the ISR of B. cereus and B. anthracis. These minor differences do not seem to be sufficient to allow the design of a species-specific oligonucleotide probe.     

苏云金芽胞杆菌转座因子的转座机理及其与杀虫晶体蛋白基因的关系

各种苏云金芽胞杆菌在杀虫毒力和杀虫谱上有很大差异。研究表明,这种特异性的杀虫毒力与存在于苏云金芽胞杆菌内的转座因子有密切关系,不同类型的转座因子其转座方式各异,总的来说可分为３种,即同源重组、转座重组和特异位点重组。这种转座过程的发生往往伴随着苏云金芽胞杆菌杀虫晶体蛋白的变异,这在基因工程菌的构建和杀虫多样性的研究上有着重要意义。     

Study of lysogeny in Bacillus thuringiensis and B. cereus]

Forty-eight strains of Bacillus thuringiensis and 12 strains of B. cereus were treated with ultraviolet light and mitomycin C. The former agent was the more effective inducer. Bacillus thuringiensis produces at least seven different phage particles with long, non-contractile tails. The frequencies of lysogeny and polylysogeny are 83 and 25% respectively. Morphologically defective phages occur in 25% of strains, whereas five of them produce low molecular-weight bacteriocins. One strain of B. cereus harbors "killer-particles." There is no apparent correlation between the presence of phage-like particles, phage senstivity, and serotypes, biotypes, or the origin of B. thuringiensis strains.     

我国部分地区土壤中的苏芸金芽孢杆菌和球形芽孢杆菌

从云南、贵州、四川和陕西4省的土壤中分离到大量苏芸金芽孢杆菌(Bacillus thuringie—nsis)和球形芽孢杆菌(Bacillus sphaeticus)菌株。血清型分析表明,苏芸金芽孢杆菌分离株分属于23个血清型中的13个血清型,另有近20％的自凝型菌株及部分与所有标准菌抗血清无反应的菌株。对该两种昆虫病原细菌的生态分布规律进行了分析。研究了全部苏芸金芽孢杆菌分离株对鳞翅目、鞘翅目及双翅目的6种昆虫的毒力特性、伴孢晶体与芽孢的形态,以及晶体蛋白质成分。观察和测定了球形芽孢杆菌分离株的形态和毒力,并分析了部分菌株的晶体蛋白质成分。得到22株高效苏芸金芽孢杆菌和2株高效球形芽孢杆菌。证明苏芸金芽孢杆菌是典型的土壤微生物类群,我国西南地区土壤中的苏芸金芽孢杆菌资源十分丰富。     

Phylogenetic analysis of Bacillus thuringiensis serovars based on 16S rRNA gene restriction fragment length polymorphisms

AIMS: To determine the 16S rRNA gene fingerprints of Bacillus thuringiensis strains to reveal phylogenetic relationships among them. METHODS AND RESULTS: Using 16S rRNA gene restriction fragment length polymorphisms generated by HindIII and EcoRI, 86 Bacillus thuringiensis strains were classified. This includes 80 B. thuringiensis serovars and five more strains, kurstaki HD-1, subtoxicus, dendrolimus, tenebrionis and sandiego, to assess not only interserovar DNA relatedness but also intraserovar DNA relatedness, and the non-motile strain, hence non-serotypeable, B. thuringiensis var. wuhanensis. All 86 B. thuringiensis strains tested showed distinct ribotypes. The dendrogram resulting from the numerical analysis of the distance matrix shows four distinct phylogenetic groups and two ungrouped serovars, finitimus and bolivia, at the 92.5% DNA relatedness rate. CONCLUSION: 16S rRNA gene fingerprinting cannot only be used for the classification of B. thuringiensis strains amenable or not to serotyping, but can also reveal phylogenetic relationships between strains. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: In future screening programmes, 16S rRNA gene restriction pattern analysis could be determined for novel B. thuringiensis strains, allowing them not only to be grouped but also to be positioned on the phylogenetic tree.     

Sequence diversity of the Bacillus thuringiensis and B. cereus sensu lato flagellin (H antigen) protein: comparison with H serotype diversity

We set out to analyze the sequence diversity of the Bacillus thuringiensis flagellin (H antigen [Hag]) protein and compare it with H serotype diversity. Some other Bacillus cereus sensu lato species and strains were added for comparison. The internal sequences of the flagellin (hag) alleles from 80 Bacillus thuringiensis strains and 16 strains from the B. cereus sensu lato group were amplified and cloned, and their nucleotide sequences were determined and translated into amino acids. The flagellin allele nucleotide sequences for 10 additional strains were retrieved from GenBank for a total of 106 Bacillus species and strains used in this study. These included 82 B. thuringiensis strains from 67 H serotypes, 5 B. cereus strains, 3 Bacillus anthracis strains, 3 Bacillus mycoides strains, 11 Bacillus weihenstephanensis strains, 1 Bacillus halodurans strain, and 1 Bacillus subtilis strain. The first 111 and the last 66 amino acids were conserved. They were referred to as the C1 and C2 regions, respectively. The central region, however, was highly variable and is referred to as the V region. Two bootstrapped neighbor-joining trees were generated: a first one from the alignment of the translated amino acid sequences of the amplified internal sequences of the hag alleles and a second one from the alignment of the V region amino acid sequences, respectively. Of the eight clusters revealed in the tree inferred from the entire C1-V-C2 region amino acid sequences, seven were present in corresponding clusters in the tree inferred from the V region amino acid sequences. With regard to B. thuringiensis, in most cases, different serovars had different flagellin amino acid sequences, as might have been expected. Surprisingly, however, some different B. thuringiensis serovars shared identical flagellin amino acid sequences. Likewise, serovars from the same H serotypes were most often found clustered together, with exceptions. Indeed, some serovars from the same H serotype carried flagellins with sufficiently different amino acid sequences as to be located on distant clusters. Species-wise, B. halodurans, B. subtilis, and B. anthracis formed specific branches, whereas the other four species, all in the B. cereus sensu lato group, B. mycoides, B. weihenstephanensis, B. cereus, and B. thuringiensis, did not form four specific clusters as might have been expected. Rather, strains from any of these four species were placed side by side with strains from the other species. In the B. cereus sensu lato group, B. anthracis excepted, the distribution of strains was not species specific.     

Genetic differentiation between sympatric populations of Bacillus cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis

Little is known about genetic exchanges in natural populations of bacteria of the spore-forming Bacillus cereus group, because no population genetics studies have been performed with local sympatric populations. We isolated strains of Bacillus thuringiensis and B. cereus from small samples of soil collected at the same time from two separate geographical sites, one within the forest and the other at the edge of the forest. A total of 100 B. cereus and 98 B. thuringiensis strains were isolated and characterized by electrophoresis to determine allelic composition at nine enzymatic loci. We observed genetic differentiation between populations of B. cereus and B. thuringiensis. Populations of a given Bacillus species--B. thuringiensis or B. cereus--were genetically more similar to each other than to populations of the other Bacillus species. Hemolytic activity provided further evidence of this genetic divergence, which remained evident even if putative clones were removed from the data set. Our results suggest that the rate of gene flow was higher between strains of the same species, but that exchanges between B. cereus and B. thuringiensis were nonetheless possible. Linkage disequilibrium analysis revealed sufficient recombination for B. cereus populations to be considered panmictic units. In B. thuringiensis, the balance between clonal proliferation and recombination seemed to depend on location. Overall, our data indicate that it is not important for risk assessment purposes to determine whether B. cereus and B. thuringiensis belong to a single or two species. Assessment of the biosafety of pest control based on B. thuringiensis requires evaluation of the extent of genetic exchange between strains in realistic natural conditions.     

Discrimination of Bacillus cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis with 16S rRNA and gyrB gene based PCR primers and sequencing of their annealing sites

AIMS: To evaluate the possibility for discrimination of Bacillus cereus and B. thuringiensis using 16S rRNA and gyrB gene based PCR methods, and to obtain the sequences of the primer annealing sites so that the PCR results may be explained. METHODS AND RESULTS: Based on the sequence difference in the variable region (V1) of 16S rRNA and in the gyrB gene between B. cereus and B. thuringiensis, PCR primers specific to these Bacillus spp. were designed. When these primers were used to discriminate B. cereus and B. thuringiensis, six of 82 B. cereus strains were identified as B. thuringiensis while 67 of 73 B. thuringiensis strains were identified as B. cereus. Sequence analysis of the primer annealing sites showed that there is no clear-cut difference in the V1 region of 16S rRNA, and in the gyrB gene, between B. cereus and B. thuringiensis strains. CONCLUSIONS: Although 16S rDNA based probes and gyrB gene based PCR primers have been suggested for the discrimination of B. cereus and B. thuringiensis strains, when a large number of Bacillus strains was tested, results showed that discrimination between B. cereus and B. thuringiensis is difficult. Therefore, to distinguish B. thuringiensis from B. cereus, a single feature, such as the presence of a parasporal crystal protein or cry gene, may sometimes be reliable. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: Discrimination between B. cereus and B. thuringiensis is a challenging debate to which this paper makes a contribution.