Management of three toxic Delphinium species based on alkaloid concentrations

A systematic approach to the taxonomic classification of the tall larkspur complex (Delphinium spp.) has been developed and implemented using molecular genetics, plant morphology, and alkaloid profiles, as shown in other papers in this series. This approach supports the classification of three distinct species (D. glaucum, D. barbeyi and D. occidentale), as the species differ in genetics and toxicity. Toxic alkaloid concentrations over the growing season were integrated with data on diet selection to make management recommendations on a species-specific basis to reduce the risk of poisoning cattle. Alkaloid concentrations in tall larkspurs in excess of 3 mg/g impart moderate or high risk to grazing cattle if sufficient quantities are consumed. D. glaucum is most toxic, with toxic alkaloid concentrations that exceed 3 mg/g throughout the grazing season until late maturity. Cattle should be denied access to dense patches of this species throughout the grazing season until after seed shatter. Concentration of toxic alkaloids in D. barbeyi is highest in vegetative plants, but D. barbeyi is unpalatable to cattle until flowering racemes begin to elongate. We recommend grazing D. barbeyi ranges early in the season when it is not palatable, then removing cattle from early flowering stage through mid-pod stage when cattle are most likely to be poisoned. Cattle can again safely graze D. barbeyi late in the season when the toxic alkaloid concentration typically declines below 3 mg/g. Some populations of D. occidentale and the D. barbeyi×D. occidentale hybrids do not contain toxic alkaloids, and pose little risk of poisoning throughout the year. Toxicity of northern populations of D. occidentale varies from year-to-year for unknown reasons. Cattle losses from D. occidentale are usually less severe than from D. barbeyi, but generally the same recommendations apply as for D. barbeyi. Toxicity sampling is an essential management tool. Tall larkspur populations can be tested for toxicity throughout the growing season. Whenever toxic alkaloid concentrations exceed 3 mg/g in leaves, flowers, or pods, cattle should be removed from the area and not returned until pods begin to shatter and risk of poisoning is lower. In general, tall larkspurs are safe to graze when alkaloid concentrations fall below 3 mg/g because it is difficult for cattle to eat sufficient larkspur to become fatally poisoned.     

Larkspur poisoning: toxicology and alkaloid structure–activity relationships

Systematic approaches to taxonomic classifications of the tall larkspur spp. have been developed using traditional chemical methods to profile alkaloids, comparison of relative toxicity of individual alkaloids, plant morphology/taxonomy and molecular genetics. Using these methods (papers published in this series) toxicology of three distinct species of tall larkspurs including Delphinium glaucum, Delphinium barbeyi and Delphinium occidentale is described. Tall larkspurs (Delphinium spp.) continue to be the most serious cause of cattle losses on mountain rangelands in the western US. Over 40 norditerpenoid alkaloids have been reported in species of larkspurs and toxicology data on 25 of these have been reported by the authors. These alkaloids can be classified into three general types based on their structural characteristics and toxicity: the N-(methylsuccinyl) anthranoyl lycoctonine (MSAL)-type, having high toxicity; the lycoctonine-type, with moderate toxicity; and the 7,8-methylenedioxylycoctonine (MDL)-type, of low toxicity. The structural importance of the methylsuccinimido anthranilic acid ester group at the C18 position is evident in the high toxicity of MSAL alkaloids, particularly methyllycaconitine (MLA), Nudicauline (NUD) and 14-deacetylnudicauline (14-DAN). Other structural aspects of these alkaloids such as the C14 functionality are also important, as demonstrated by the reduced toxicity of barbinine. MLA is the alkaloid of most importance in toxicity of larkspurs on mountain rangelands because of its prevalence in most larkspurs and high toxicity. While NUD and 14-DAN also possess high toxicity, they are relatively minor components in few larkspur species (generally the plains and low larkspurs), but when present at concentrations approaching 1 mg/g dry weight they contribute significantly to overall toxicity. Deltaline (DLT) is often found in high concentrations in many larkspurs but because of low toxicity, its contribution to larkspur poisoning in the field is relatively minor and it will probably not cause toxicosis in the absence of the MSAL-type alkaloids.     

Norditerpene alkaloid concentrations in tissues and floral rewards of larkspurs and impacts on pollinators

Plant secondary compounds mediate interactions with insects and other animals. The norditerpene alkaloids are significant secondary compounds in Delphinium (larkspur) species which are divided into two classes: the 7, 8-methylenedioxylycoctonine (MDL-type) and N-(methylsuccinimido) anthranoyllycoctonine (MSAL-type), and are known to be toxic to herbivorous insects and livestock. Alkaloid concentrations were measured in a whole plant context in vegetative and floral tissues as well as rewards (pollen and nectar) in Delphinium barbeyi and Delphinium nuttallianum. Alkaloid concentrations differed between vegetative tissues, floral tissues and floral rewards. Alkaloid concentrations in floral parts were consistent with optimal defense theory, with tissues more closely tied to plant fitness, such as fruits, being more heavily defended than foliage. However, alkaloid concentrations were significantly lower in nectar compared to other tissues. The norditerpene alkaloids influenced the activity of bumble bees, the dominant pollinator of larkspur, but the effects were concentration dependent. Alkaloids in nectar are found at concentrations that have no effect on bee activity; however, if alkaloid concentrations in nectar were similar to those in foliage bee activity would be reduced significantly. These results suggest that nectar with low alkaloid concentrations may be beneficial to plant fitness by limiting adverse effects on pollinator activity.     

Seasonal variation in the secondary chemistry of foliar and reproductive tissues of Delphinium nuttallianum

Plant secondary compounds are critical in affecting interactions between plants and their herbivores. The norditerpene alkaloids are secondary compounds in Delphinium (larkspur) species which are divided into two classes: the N-(methylsuccinimido) anthranoyllycoctonine (MSAL-type) and non MSAL-type, and are known to be toxic to herbivorous insects and livestock. Alkaloid concentrations were measured in a whole plant context in vegetative and reproductive tissues in Delphinium nuttallianum at different stages of plant maturity at two locations to explore how plant maturity affected alkaloid concentrations within a growing season. Alkaloid concentrations differed between vegetative and reproductive tissues, with vegetative tissues having significantly lower alkaloid concentrations than reproductive tissues. However, no systematic differences in alkaloid concentrations were observed at different plant maturity stages across the growing season. Based on the data we suggest that alkaloid allocation in different plant parts of D. nuttallianum is influenced by life history of the plant, consistent with plant defense theory. At one location, as pods mature the qualitative alkaloid composition changed through structural diversification of the alkaloids present. The ecological significance of this structural diversification awaits further exploration.     

Selenium Assimilation and Nutrient Element Uptake in White Clover and Tall Fescue under the Influence of Sulphate Concentration and Selenium Tolerance of the Plants

Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) and white clover (Trifoliumrepens L.) were examined for Se assimilation and nutrient elementuptake. Substantial Se tolerance difference was found betweenthe two species. An inverse relationship between Se accumulationand Se tolerance suggests an exclusion mechanism that restrictsSe uptake by the plant with greater Se tolerance. A positiverelationship between the increase of protein Se concentrationand growth inhibition in the plants suggests that assimilationof Se into proteins is responsible for the Se toxic effect andthis study indicates that the antagonistic effect of sulphateis responsible for reducing Se toxicity at the protein level.No evidence that a Se exclusion mechanism which excludes Sefrom incorporating into protein, such as that found in Astragalusspecies, plays any major role of Se tolerance in these two species. Under Se treatment, plant tissue Ca concentration was increased,but P concentration was decreased. A higher Fe concentrationwas found in white clover which increased with increasing tissueSe concentration. Copper, Mn, and Zn concentrations only increasedin the white clover under conditions of severe growth inhibition. Key words: Tall fescue, white clover, selenium assimilation, selenium exclusion, tolerance, nutrient uptake     

Host plant resistance in romaine lettuce affects feeding behavior and biology of Trichoplusia ni and Spodoptera exigua (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Lettuce quality and yield can be reduced by feeding of several lepidopterous pests, particularly cabbage looper, Trichoplusia ni (Hübner), and beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Host plant resistance to these insects is an environmentally sound adjunct to conventional chemical control. In this study we compared the survival, development, and feeding behavior of cabbage looper and beet armyworm on two romaine lettuce cultivars, resistant 'Valmaine' and susceptible 'Tall Guzmaine'. Larval mortality of both species was significantly higher on resistant Valmaine than on susceptible Tall Guzmaine. The average weight per larva after feeding for 1 wk on Tall Guzmaine plants was 6 times (beet armyworm) and 2 times (cabbage looper) greater than that of larvae feeding on Valmaine plants. Significant reduction in larval growth on Valmaine compared with that on Tall Guzmaine resulted in a 5.9- (beet armyworm) and 2.6-d (cabbage looper) increase in larval duration and almost a 1-d increase in pupal duration. Average pupal and adult weights and successful pupation of cabbage looper and beet armyworm were reduced on Valmaine compared with Tall Guzmaine. The sex ratio of progeny did not deviate from 1:1 when larvae were reared on either Valmaine or Tall Guzmaine. The fecundity of cabbage looper and beet armyworm adults that developed from larvae reared on Valmaine was about one-third that of adults from Tall Guzmaine, but adult longevity did not significantly differ on the two lettuce cultivars. The two insect species showed different feeding preferences for leaves of different age groups on Valmaine and Tall Guzmaine. Cabbage loopers cut narrow trenches on the leaf before actual feeding to block the flow of latex to the intended site of feeding. In contrast, beet armyworms did not trench. The different feeding behavior of the two species on Valmaine may explain the superior performance of cabbage looper compared with beet armyworm.     

Survival and development of Heliothis virescens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) larvae on isogenic tobacco lines with different levels of alkaloids

Levels of pyridine alkaloids were measured in 18 tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum L., entries from three parental isolines ('NC 95', 'SC 58', and 'Coker 139'), grown at Tifton, GA, Florence, SC, and Oxford, NC, in 1991. Levels of alkaloids in bud leaves (first fully unfolded leaf below the apical leaf bud) were negatively correlated to natural infestation ratings of tobacco budworm larvae, Heliothis virescens (F.), 7 wk after transplanting. For artificially infested bud leaves at Oxford, there was a significant negative correlation between levels of total alkaloids and larval weights after 1 wk of feeding. In 1992, four entries from the 'NC 95' isoline were grown at Oxford, and samples for alkaloid analyses were taken every 2 wk at several leaf positions on each plant. During weeks 4, 8, 12, and 16, second instar tobacco budworms were caged on individual, intact leaves inside perforated plastic bags in the field. The survival and development of tobacco budworm larvae after 1 wk were negatively correlated with levels of alkaloids at the various leaf positions. Larvae survived better and grew faster on the bud leaves of each entry where alkaloid levels were lower than they did on leaves further down the stalk where alkaloid levels were higher. More larvae survived on the lower leaves of the low alkaloid lines than on the lower leaves of the high alkaloid lines. Even moderate increases in pyridine alkaloids had negative effects on tobacco budworm survival and development. Nicotine constituted >97% of the pyridine alkaloids in the 'NC95' isoline each year.     

Selenium and sulfur accumulation and soil selenium dissipation in planting of four herbaceous plant species in soil contaminated with drainage sediment rich in both selenium and sulfur

Four selenium (Se) nonaccumulator plant species, including a forage grass species, Tall Fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), a forage legume species, Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), a wetland species, Rush (Juncus tenuis Wild.), and a dry-land alkaline soil species, Saltgrass (Distichlis spicata L.), were grown in soil contaminated by agricultural drainage sediment having elevated levels of Se and sulfur (S). The above-ground plant tissues were consecutively harvested five times and examined for Se and S accumulation. Plant tissue Se concentrations ranged from 23.0 mg kg-1 to 8.3 mg kg-1. Tissue S concentrations ranged from 3239 mg kg-1 to 7034 mg kg-1. Both tissue Se and S concentrations were significantly different between harvests, species, and species/harvest interactions. Total Se accumulation by the plant biomass harvested ranged from 0.3 to 1.3 mg per soil column and total S accumulations ranged from 87.5 to 321.1 mg per soil column. The reduction in the percentage of total soil Se after 24 weeks growth of the plant species ranged from 12.0% in the Tall Fescue planting to 17.3% in the Rush planting. Over 90% of the soil Se losses were unidentified losses and leaching of Se was prevented. The accumulations of Se and S in the plant biomass were very small compared with the total soil Se and S losses, but substantial amounts of total soil Se (12.0 to 15.0%) and S (28.0 to 50.9%) inventories were dissipated by the growing and harvesting of the plants. The soil S concentration was several hundred times higher than the soil Se concentration, but Se accumulation by the plants and Se dissipation from the soil were not impaired by the high level of soil sulfur. For natural grassland habitat restoration, such as at the Kesterson Wildlife Refuge in the Central Valley of California, or for restoration of large-scale Se contaminated agricultural lands, Se nonaccumulator plant species are favorable candidates, because the possibility of introducing Se toxicity into the food chain can be minimized.     

Tissue and cellular phosphorus storage during development of phosphorus toxicity in Hakea prostrata (Proteaceae)

Storage of phosphorus (P) in stem tissue is important in Mediterranean Proteaceae, because proteoid root growth and P uptake is greatest during winter, whereas shoot growth occurs mostly in summer. This has prompted the present investigation of the P distribution amongst roots, stems, and leaves of Hakea prostrata R.Br. (Proteaceae) when grown in nutrient solutions at ten P-supply rates. Glasshouse experiments were carried out during both winter and summer months. For plants grown in the low-P range (0, 0.3, 1.2, 3.0, or 6.0 micromol d(-1)) the root [P] was > stem and leaf [P]. In contrast, leaf [P] > stem and root [P] for plants grown in the high-P range (6.0, 30, 60, 150, or 300 micromol P d(-1)). At the highest P-supply rates, the capacity for P storage in stems and roots appears to have been exceeded, and leaf [P] thereafter increased dramatically to approximately 10 mg P g(-1) dry mass. This high leaf [P] was coincident with foliar symptoms of P toxicity which were similar to those described for many other species, including non-Proteaceae. The published values (tissue [P]) at which P toxicity occurs in a range of species are summarized. X-ray microanalysis of frozen, full-hydrated leaves revealed that the [P] in vacuoles of epidermal, palisade and bundle-sheath cells were in the mM range when plants were grown at low P-supply, even though very low leaf [P] was measured in bulk leaf samples. At higher P-supply rates, P accumulated in vacuoles of palisade cells which were associated with decreased photosynthetic rates.     

Relationships between heterozygosity and fitness in the Iberian threatened larkspur Delphinium bolosii (Ranunculaceae)

The relationship between individual heretozygosity and fitness was explored in the perennial larkspur Delphinium bolosii (Ranunculaceae), an endangered species endemic to Catalonia (North-Eastern Spain), as a part of several studies prior to designing a programme for the reintroduction of this species in a locality where it has been extinct for approximately one century. Allozyme electrophoresis was used to quantify the levels of heterozygosity at nearly to one hundred surveyed individuals in two extant populations. At the same time, eight parameters of vegetative and reproductive fitness were measured. A principal component analysis reduced the original fitness variables to three uncorrelated principal components, two associated with the maternal plant and the other one with the offspring. However, none of the components were significantly correlated with heterozygosity. The low number of variable allozyme markers and the likely influence of ecological factors could be responsible for the lack of correlation between individual heterozygosity and fitness.     

Seasonal variation in toxic steroidal alkaloids of foothill death camas (Zigadenus paniculatus)

Death camas (Zigadenus spp.) is a common poisonous plant in North America with plants occurring in a wide variety of habitats with species of toxic concern occurring primarily in meadows, grasslands, shrublands, and mountains. The toxicity of Zigadenus species has been attributed to a series of steroidal alkaloids. The objective of this study was to evaluate zygacine and total steroidal alkaloid concentrations in different plant tissues of Zigadenus paniculatus as a function of plant maturity. Death camas plants were collected at two locations at different developmental growth stages representing vegetative, flower, seed pod, and shattered seed pod stages. Zygacine represented greater than 50% of the total steroidal alkaloids at all developmental stages. In bulbs, total steroidal alkaloid and zygacine concentrations did not change significantly as a function of plant phenology, and concentrations were lower than what were observed in above ground plant parts. Total steroidal alkaloid and zygacine concentrations in above ground parts were highest at early vegetative growth stages and decreased over the growing season. In plant reproductive parts, total steroidal alkaloid and zygacine concentrations increased until maturity and then decreased as the plant senesced. The concentrations of steroidal alkaloids reported here suggest that the toxic risk associated with death camas is greatest in the early vegetative growth stages followed by the flower and pod stages. There is a toxic risk to livestock as long as the plant is present, and caution should be taken when grazing livestock in areas with death camas until the plant senesces.     

Observations on Alexandrium tamarense (Lebour) Balech and Other Dinoflagellate Populations in Golfo Nuevo, Patagonia (Argentina)

The toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarense and other dinoflagellatespecies were studied, along with water temperature and nutrientconcentrations, from September 1995 to December 1998 in theGolfo Nuevo, Chubut, Argentina. Nutrient concentrations werelow, showing a peak of high concentration in winter and a phaseof depletion in late spring and summer. Dinoflagellates tendedto be abundant during spring and summer, when Prorocentrum micanswas the most important species. Other dinoflagellates were Pyrophacushorologium and Dinophysis acuminata. Ceratium tripos, C. fususand C. horridum were present during the autumn, and a C. tripospeak up to 5.9 x 10³ cell l^–1 was observed in May 1997.Alexandrium tamarense showed strong interannual variation, thehighest concentration being found in spring (September–October)1995, with densities up to 15 x 10³ cells l^–1. The secondA.tamarense peak was observed during October–November1998 with maximal densities up to 5 x 10³ cells l^–1. Moderatelyhigh A. tamarense cyst densities, up to 300 cysts cm^–3of sediment, were found in the deep zone of the Golfo Nuevobasin. Among meteorolog-ical variables, increased late winterrain and higher solar radiation during spring may have influencedA. tamarense blooms.     

Shifts in host plant resistance to the cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae) exhibited by Brussels sprout plants

Seven cultivars of Brussels sprouts from different sources were tested for their relative degrees of resistance to the cabbage aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae) by estimating the Potential Increase Rate of aphid infestations. The cultivars Winter Harvest and Early Half Tall were selected as susceptible and resistant respectively and tested further. Glasshouse experiments indicated that the resistance of Winter Harvest to the aphids increased with age.
These relative levels of resistance were confirmed by population counts in the field. Aphid numbers were initially significantly higher on Winter Harvest than on Early Half Tall although significance was lost as the season progressed at a time when the characteristics responsible for the resistance mechanism ceased to be distinguishable between the two cultivars.
Analysis of the amino acid content of leaf tissues collected at monthly intervals through the aphid season enabled 'risk rating' predictions of aphid resistance to be made. These conformed with the shifts towards greater resistance as the plants aged noted in the glasshouse trials and endorsed the part played by amino acids in the mechanism of resistance. Total amino acid concentrations reached a peak during September and October then declined with generally lower levels of amino acids in Early Half Tall than Winter Harvest. This cultivar also possessed a greater concentration of those amino acids known to be favourable to B. brassicae although the difference between the two had diminished considerably by the end of September.
Analyses of the mustard oil glycoside levels in mature glasshouse-grown plants did not indicate a difference between the cultivars.     

秦岭典型林分夏秋两季根际与非根际土壤微生物群落结构

本试验主要以秦岭山脉锐齿栎(Quercus aliena var.acutidentata)、油松(Pinus tabuliformis)、华山松(Pinus armandii)、云杉(Picea asperata)4种典型林分为对象,利用BIOLOG微孔板法研究4种林分夏、秋两季根际与非根际土壤微生物群落代谢多样性。研究表明:(1)夏、秋季土壤根际与非根际的平均颜色变化率(AWCD)值截然不同,除秋季云杉外,其余处理均表现为非根际根际,且AWCD明显受到季节的影响。(2)夏秋两季4种林分根际与非根际土壤微生物功能多样性之间差异显著,其中锐齿栎林夏秋两季均表现为根际小于非根际,而其它3种针叶林则是夏季根际小于非根际,秋季根际大于非根际;锐齿栎林根际与非根际均为秋季低于夏季,其他3种针叶林则是非根际土秋季低于夏季,而根际土秋季高于夏季。(3)主成分分析显示各土壤微生物功能多样性具有显著差异,且4种林分夏秋两季根际与非根际主成分综合得分也有所不同,4种林分非根际土综合得分锐齿栎最高,其次是华山松和云杉,油松最低;根际土夏秋规律不同,夏季华山松和油松较高,云杉最低,秋季油松和云杉较高,锐齿栎最低,且综合得分与多样性指数达到显著或极显著的正相关。(4)冗余分析表明土壤理化性质的综合作用对土壤微生物群落功能多样性有显著影响。     

Littoral microcrustaceans (Cladocera, Copepoda) in a prairie coastal wetland: seasonal abundance and community structure

Seasonal species abundance and community structure of the littoralmicrocrustacean community (Cladocera, Copepoda) in two areas of DeltaMarsh were investigated over the open-water season. Cladoceranabundance in Crescent Pond, with no fish, only invertebrate predatorswas considerably higher than in Blind Channel, with both fish andinvertebrate predators, and where cyclopoid copepods were thedominant microcrustaceans. In both areas, a small number of speciesof planktonic cladocerans characterized the community in spring andearly summer, whereas a diverse array of species of phytophilouscladocerans comprised the community throughout the summer. Daphnia rosea was the most abundant species in the planktoniccommunity in Crescent Pond for the first half of the summer, and Ceriodaphnia dubia was most abundant in the last half. In contrast,no single planktonic cladoceran species was consistently mostabundant in Blind Channel. The sequence of dominant phytophilouscladoceran species observed in Crescent Pond through the season wasChydorus sp. 2, Simocephalus vetulus, Pleuroxusdenticulatus, and Ceriodaphnia dubia, and in Blind Channel,Alona circumfimbriata, Simocephalus vetulus, and Ceriodaphnia dubia. Dominant planktonic and phytophilous copepods inboth areas were Diacyclops thomasi, Acanthocyclops vernalis,Eucyclops agilis, and Macrocyclops albidus. Canonicalcorrespondence analysis revealed differences in community structurebetween areas of the marsh related to turbidity, phytoplanktonbiomass, and soluble reactive phosphorus concentration.     

Sequestration of pyridine alkaloids anabasine and nicotine from Nicotiana (Solanaceae) by Orobanche ramosa (Orobanchaceae)

Plants of the root holoparasite Orobanche ramosa L. and four of its potential host species, Nicotiana glauca Graham, Nicotiana rustica L., Nicotiana sylvestris Speg. & S.Comes, and Nicotiana tabacum L., grown in the greenhouse in Kiel/Germany, were analyzed for their contents of pyridine alkaloids anabasine (1) and nicotine (2). All investigated samples contained both alkaloids in different amounts. The distribution of the alkaloids in the various plant organs of Nicotiana differed significantly between the species. The alkaloid contents of the Orobanche samples relative to the alkaloid contents of the roots of the respective host plants varied between 3.47 ± 1.08 and 28.8 ± 37.5%. Orobanche plants drain water and crucial nutrients from their hosts; also, some examples for the sequestration of specialized natural products have been reported. O. ramosa is not able to synthesize pyridine alkaloids anabasine (1) and nicotine (2) itself; therefore, the present study proves the sequestration of pyridine alkaloids by O. ramosa from the four investigated Nicotiana host species.     

SOME ASPECTS OF THE BEHAVIOUR OF THE WATTLED PLOVER AFRIBYX SENEGALLUS (LINNAEUS)

The question of how aridity might influence avian clutch size, through the influences of rainfall seasonality and environmental stochasticity (unpredictability), has received little attention. A marked east-west gradient in aridity across South Africa provides a unique opportunity to test for such influences. Using an extensive collection of nest records for 106 terrestrial bird species from the South African Nest Record Card Scheme, we tested three predictions related to rainfall seasonality and stochasticity. Analyses were conducted at two levels, the first examining each species independently, and the second grouping species into five dietary guilds. The first prediction, that clutch size should generally increase with higher rainfall seasonality (i.e. higher seasonal fluctuation of food availability), was supported, particularly in the most arid environments where food abundance is more closely linked to rainfall. Controlling for rainfall seasonality, the second prediction, that clutch size should generally decrease as a bet-hedging strategy in arid, stochastic environments, was also supported. Although the timing of the rainy season differs among regions in South Africa (winter, early summer, later summer, year-round), birds primarily nest during spring. The relative timing of rainfall and breeding is expected to have different consequences for seasonal variation in clutch size among rainfall regions. The third prediction, of different patterns of seasonal variation in clutch size between rainfall regions, was also supported. In the winter and early-summer rainfall regions, early-nesting birds (breeding with or soon after the rains) generally had a larger clutch size than late-nesting birds. In the late-summer rainfall region, early-nesting birds (breeding well before the rains) had a smaller clutch size than late-nesting birds.     

TREATMENT OF MIGRAINE-Results with Dihydroergocornine Methanesulfonate (DHO-180) and Other Ergot Derivatives

A comparison of nicotinic acid, a non-narcotic analgesic and a series of injectable and oral ergot preparations tested by various methods in treating 40 patients with typical migraine indicate that ergot alkaloids are far superior in producing symptomatic relief.A comparison of ergotamine tartrate, dihydroergotamine (DHE-45) and dihydroergocornine (DHO-180) indicated that ergotamine tartrate is the most effective and perhaps the most toxic, DHE-45 is slightly less effective and considerably less toxic, and that DHO-180 is the least effective but also the least toxic. When given orally, these alkaloids were about half as effective as when given by injection. EC-110 (ergotamine nitrate with caffeine) was the most effective.DHO-180 in liquid form, given daily for one month, had a marked preventive effect on migraine attacks.     

The effects of cadmium and the cadmium-zinc interaction on the axenic growth of ectomycorrhizal fungi

Eleven strains of ectomycorrhizal fungi belonging to seven species have been cultured on a cadmium-contaminated growth medium in order to determine their in vitro cadmium tolerance. Four strains were collected from a zinc and cadmium-polluted soil. Radial growth rate was a sensitive parameter to detect Cd toxicity. A wide differential response to Cd was obtained between the individual species. A clear relation between Cd tolerance and site origin of the isolates did not exist, although such a relationship was found when strains are compared within one species. Cd-sensitive and Cd-tolerant strains of Suillus bovinus were studied in more detail. Two isolates were grown on media with combinations of two non-toxic zinc concentrations and three cadmium levels. Adding a higher Zn concentration to the medium resulted in a reduction of the toxic effect of Cd. This antagonistic effect also resulted in a lowered Cd concentration in the mycelium.