NEW SPECIES OF SMEAGOL FROM AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND, WITH A DISCUSSION OF THEAFFINITIES OF THE GENUS (GASTROPODA: PULMONATA)

Five species of the marine pulmonate genus Smeagol (family Smeagolidae)are described from upper littoral shingle habitats from southeastern Australia and New Zealand. The systematic position ofthe family is discussed. (Received 24 June 1991; accepted 2 October 1991)     

Comparison of growth characteristics of New Zealand isolates of the prymnesiophytes Chrysochromulina quadrikonta and C.camella with those of the ichthyotoxic species C.polylepis

Chrysochromulina quadrikonta (Prymnesiophyceae), a quadriflagellatespecies previously unrecorded in New Zealand, was isolated fromNelson Harbour, New Zealand, in autumn 1991. It bears unmineralizedplate and spine scales, which morphologically are most likethose of Chrysochromulina ericina. Chrysochromulina quadrikonta,Chrysochromulina camella (isolated from the Marlborough Sounds,New Zealand) and Chrysochromulina polylepis (an ichthyotoxicspecies originally isolated from Scandinavia) grew most rapidly(growth rates, or divisions per day, of 1.41, 1.49 and 1.43,respectively) when cultured in a seawater-based general-purposenutrient medium at a salinity of 24% and pH 7.9, with only C.camellastill growing at 42% Chrysochromulina quadrikonta and C.camellagrew optimally at 25°C. and C.polylepis between 15 and 20°C;only C.polylepis grew at 10°C. Chrysochromulina quadrikontagrew optimally with potassium nitrate and ammonium chlorideas nitrogen source, whereas C.camella and C.polylepis grew equallywell with urea as nitrogen source. Only C.quadrikonta and C.polylepishad a selenium requirement. Unlike C.polylepis, neither of theNew Zealand isolates was phagotrophic nor ichthyotoxic.     

REDESCRIPTION OF EMBLETONIA GRACILE RISBEC, 1928 (NUDIBRANCHIA: EMBLETONIIDAE): RELOCATION TO SUBORDER DENDRONOTACEA WITH TAXONOMIC AND PHYLOGENETIC IMPLICATIONS

The nudibranch mollusc Embletonia gracile Risbec, 1928 is redescribedon the basis of ten specimens from the southern Pacific Ocean(New Zealand, Fiji, Australia, Papua New Guinea). We concludethat Embletoniella paucipapillata (Baba & Hamatani, 1963)is a junior synonym. Even the most detailed previous studieswere compromised by the availability only of juvenile animals< 8 mm long; adults are now known to attain 23 mm crawlinglength. Our material permitted a reassessment both of ontogeneticand intraspecific variation within this enigmatic nudibranch.Reasons that substantiate the referral of the Embletoniidaeto the suborder Dendronotacea are presented. (Received 20 February 1991; accepted 10 May 1991)     

NOTES ON THE INTRODUCED TERRESTRIAL PULMONATA (GASTROPODA:MOLLUSCA) OF NEW ZEALAND

The New Zealand Pulmonate fauna contains 22 naturalized terrestrialspecies. For each, a bibliography is given for the New Zealandliterature and comment made on its biology and distribution.Vertigo ovata SAY and Oxychilus draparnaldi (BECK) are newlyrecorded from New Zealand. (Received 11 February 1981;     

OSTEOPELTIDAE (MOLLUSCA:GASTROPODA): A NEW FAMILY OF LIMPETS ASSOCIATED WITH WHALE BONE IN THE DEEP-SEA

Osteopeltidae n. fam. is proposed for Osteopelta mirabilis n.gen. & sp., a limpet from whale skulls trawled on the ChathamRise and off the Chatham Islands, New Zealand. Osteopelta mirabiliscombines a pseudococculinid-like shell and radula with an add-isoniid-likeanimal. Apparent homologies in lepe-telloidean and cocculinoideanradulae are discussed. (Received 27 August 1986;     

THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF LAROCHEA FINLAY, 1927, AND INTRODUCTION OF A NEW GENUS AND TWO NEW SPECIES (GASTROPODA: SCISSURELLIDAE)

Species of the gastropod genus Larochea Finlay, 1927 are shownto be scissurellids without an anal shell slit or foramen. TheNew Zealand species, L. miranda Finlay, 1927 and L. secundaPowell, 1937, brood their young in the right subpallial cavityagainst a modified inner lip that is set well behind the aperturalplane. Larochea scitula n.sp. is based on shells from WanganellaBank, southern Norfolk Ridge. Larocheopsis n. gen. is introducedfor a minute species from off northern New Zealand that lacksa shell brood chamber. Larochea miranda and Larocheopsis amplexan.sp. are either gonochoristic with smaller males or consecutivehermaphrodites, while Larochea secunda and L. scitula are evidentlygonochoristic, having mature males and females of similar size. (Received 23 July 1992; accepted 10 December 1992)     

Systematic and conservation implications of geographic variation in pipits (Anthus: Motacillidae) in New Zealand and some offshore islands

The New Zealand Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae occurs as a single species in Europe (as Richard's Pipit), Asia, Africa, New Guinea, Australia and New Zealand. In the New Zealand region, subspecific status has been accorded to allopatric populations on the mainland (A. n. novaeseelandiae) , on the Auckland and Campbell Islands (A. n. aucklandicus) , on the Antipodes Islands (A. n. steindachneri) and on the Chatham Islands (A. n. chathamensis) . Analyses of 23 allozyme loci and morphometric variation of populations on mainland New Zealand and on the Auckland, Campbell, Antipodes and Chatham Islands showed an appreciable and significant divergence between mainland and island populations. The magnitude of the allozyme difference is sufficient to suggest full species designation for the island birds, a conclusion supported by morphometric analyses and in sharp contrast to current taxonomy. However, formal taxonomic change will not be undertaken until the two New Zealand groups have been compared with more distant populations of this wideranging genus. The cryptic variation found in this species has conservation management implications for the small offshore populations.     

Phylogeographic analysis of the brown alga Cutleria multifida (Tilopteridales,Phaeophyceae) suggests a complicated introduction history

In depth genetic comparisons of populations of Cutleria multifida (Tilopteridales, Phaeophyceae) collected from Europe, the northwestern Pacific Ocean, Australia and New Zealand using the DNA sequences of four gene regions (the mitochondrial cox2 and cox3 genes, the intergeneric spacer region adjacent to cox3, and the open reading frame) suggested that the northwestern European and Japanese populations were considerably greater in terms of their genetic divergence than Mediterranean, Australian or New Zealand populations. The haplotypes of the populations in northwestern European (distribution range including the type locality, seven haplotypes) and Japanese populations (seven haplotypes) were unique except for one shared haplotype. There were weak but positive correlations between the geographical distance and the genetic divergence among northwestern European and Japanese populations. Moreover, both female and male gametophytes occurred in eight of the nine Japanese localities, suggesting Japanese populations showed normal sexual heteromorphic life history of the species. In light of these results, it appears that Japanese populations were native to the area despite earlier hypothesis. In contrast, Australian and New Zealand populations were composed of only one haplotype that is very close to those found in northwestern Europe and Japan, suggesting a recent introduction history from Europe (or from northeastern Asia via Europe) by ship transport to Australia and New Zealand. The Mediterranean populations included two haplotypes identical to those found in northwestern Europe and Japan, and it is suggestive of transoceanic introductions of some populations between Mediterranean and Japanese coasts.     

Genetic differentiation among populations of the shortfinned eel Anguilla australis from East Australia and New Zealand

Variability at seven microsatellite loci was used to survey the genetic population structure of the shortfinned eel Anguilla australis . Samples were collected from six estuaries along the east coast of Australia and from three estuaries around New Zealand. Hierarchical analysis of molecular variance of the five loci with good fit to Hardy–Weinberg genotypic proportions detected highly significant differences among samples ( F _ST= 0·016, P < 0·001). The fixation index between countries ( F _CT= 0·012, P < 0·001) was more than double the index among samples within countries ( F _SC= 0·005, P < 0·05). An unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) tree also supported the separation of Australian and New Zealand populations, as did assignment tests, which correctly assigned 80 and 84% of the individuals to Australia and New Zealand, respectively. Isolation-by-distance appeared among samples overall ( r = 0·807, P < 0·001), but not among samples within countries ( r = 0·027, P > 0·05 in Australia; r = 0·762, P > 0·05 in New Zealand). These findings indicate that populations of A. australis in East Australia and in New Zealand may be reproductively isolated from one another. Genetic differentiation among populations of A. australis was two- to 10-fold higher than that among populations of other temperate eels in the North Atlantic Ocean, suggesting that two group of A. australis may reflect sub-species. Anguilla australis in the two countries have different genetic structures and thus require separate management. Genetic isolation between Australian and New Zealand populations indicates that juveniles recruit independently into these two regions from geographically or temporally isolated spawning areas.     

POTAMOPYRGUS ANTIPODARUM--A MOLLUSCAN COLONISER OF EUROPE AND AUSTRALIA

The hydrobiid gastropod genus Potamopyrgus is shown to be representedin Australia by the New Zealand species P. antipodarum (Gray).It is widely distributed in south eastern Australia and Tasmaniafollowing its introduction about the middle of the last century.The Australian populations of Potamopyrgus were known, incorrectly,as P. niger, because of a misinterpretation of Paludina nigraQuoy & Gai-mard, 1835. Paludina nigra, here placed in thegenus Fluvidona, is redescribed and a neotype designated. Potamopyrgusantipodarum has also been introduced to Europe, where it isknown as P. jenkinsi (Smith) (Received 19 August 1987; accepted 16 December 1987)     

CHROMOSOMES OF MELANOPSIS DUFOURI FERUSSAC, 1823 (CAENOGASTROPODA: MELANOPSIDAE)

The most frequent chromosome numbers were 2n = 36 and n = 18in Melanopsis dufouri Férussac inhabiting the Ullal deBaldovi, an ancient spring of the Albufera lake (Valencia province),and the small stream Rambla de Gaibiel (Castellon province)in Spain. Subtelocentric and subtelo-telocentric chromosomespredominated in the sets of snails from both populations. Pericentricinversions were basic factors in the interpopulational differentiationof karyotypes. Intrapopulational karyotype polymorphism (specimenswith 2n = 36, 2n = 34, rarely 2n = 35) and mosaic molluscs occurredin the Ullal de Baldovi population as a result of small chromosomeelimination. The rather frequent appearance of one or two non-homologuesmall chromosomes in hypodiploid nuclei 2n = 35, 2n = 34 wasobviously connected with fragmentation of chromosomes. Karyologicalfindings are in accordance with phenotypic diversity of M. dufourifrom the Ullal de Baldovi population. (Received 27 February 1997; accepted 10 October 1997)     

ADELACERITHIINAE: A NEW SUBFAMILY OF THE TRIPHORIDAE (MOLLUSCA: GASTROPODA)

Adelacerithiinae is proposed for the Pliocene Adelacerithiummerulatum Ludbrook, 1941, from Abattoirs Bore, South Australia,and the Recent A. mirabilis n.sp., from off northern New Zealand,Adelacerithium species have a dextral cerithiform shell, distinctiveshell sculpture, a columellar plait, and rhinioglossate dentitionwith reversed radular cross-row configuration. Relationshipsbetween the major triphorid groups and the possibilities forcommon origin for the Triphoroidea, Ccrithiopsoidea, Cerithioidea,and the Neogastropods are discussed. (Received 21 January 1983;     

Is Avian Malaria Playing a Role in Native Bird Declines in New Zealand? Testing Hypotheses along an Elevational Gradient

The mosquito-borne disease avian malaria (Plasmodium spp.) has impacted both captive populations and wild individuals of native New Zealand bird species. However, whether or not it is a cause of concern to their wild populations is still unclear. In Hawaii, the disease has been a major factor in the population declines of some native forest bird species, often limiting their elevational distribution due to an inverse relationship between force of infection and elevation. While studies have investigated latitudinal patterns of infection in New Zealand, elevational patterns are unexplored. To address this, a survey was conducted in Nelson Lakes National Park, a site experiencing native bird declines in which disease has been suggested as playing a role, to investigate whether there is a similar inverse relationship in New Zealand. Results from blood samples (n = 436) collected over three seasons across a broad elevational range (650–1400 m) support there being such a relationship. In addition, an overall higher prevalence in non-native (14.1%) versus native birds (1.7%) may indicate differential impacts on these two groups, while particularly high prevalence in non-native Turdus spp. supports previous suggestions that they are key reservoir hosts for the disease. Overall, these findings add weight to the hypothesis that avian malaria is playing a role in ongoing declines of native New Zealand birds.     

The combined effects of temperature and salinity on the survival of Euterpina acutifrons (Dana) (Copepoda, Harpacticoida) from the New Zealand and Brazilian coasts

The combined effects of temperature and salinity on the survivalof non ovigerous female Euterpina acutifrons from the south-easternNew Zealand and southern Brazilian coasts were studied. Sixsalinities (6, 20, 34, 48, 62 and 76 ) and five temperatures(5, 10, 15, 20 and 25°C) were used for New Zealand specimenswhile six temperatures (5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30°C) andthe same salinities were employed for the Brazilian specimens.The mortality data were analysed statistically using multipleregression techniques. Animals from New Zealand showed greatertolerance to cold, less to high temperatures and more resistanceto both high and low salinities than those from Brazil, Animalsfrom both areas were slightly more tolerant of low temperaturein high salinities and of high temperature in low salinities.These striking differences observed between New Zealand andBrazilian populations of E. acutifrons imply the existence ofdifferent physiological races in this species.     

Genetically Fixed Characters and Evolutionary Divergence

Data from hybridization permit assessment of relationships ofthe toads (genus Bufo) which occur on all continents exceptAustralia and permit a crude estimate of the degree of geneticchange with time. The evidence indicates that toads have beenvery conservative with respect to change. A major dichotomyinto broad-skulled, warmth-adapted and narrow-skulled, cold-adaptedtypes occurred in the New World 15 million or more years ago.The narrow-skulled toads have reached Africa at least twice.Hybridization between Eurasian and New World species shows thatafter separation for an estimated 10 million years some speciesremain genetically similar enough to produce viable F₁ hybridsin both reciprocals of the cross. Broad-skulled toads appearto have been in Africa for at least 15 million years, as indicatedby the fossil record, and in their main radiation they havechanged their chromosomal number from 2n=22 to 2n=20. Nevertheless,their females form viable F₁ hybrids with New World broad-skulledmales after presumed isolation for more than 15 million years.Intermediate types live today in the New World connecting bothskull types, and some cross easily with both. Evolutionary conservatismof Bufo with respect to genetic compatibility contrasts withthe rapid change in Rana.     

Genetic differentiation of starling (Sturnus vulgaris: Aves) populations in New Zealand and Great Britain

Several hundred starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) were introduced to New Zealand from Great Britain during1860–1880. Allozymic variation at 24 loci was analysed in winter populations sampled at six localities in each country. New Zealand samples had fewer alleles per locus but the same mean heterozygosity (3% per locus) and proportion of polymorphic loci as did British samples. Winter populations in Britain contain European migrants and were genetically homogeneous. Paradoxically, genetic distances among derived New Zealand populations, and between New Zealand and Great Britain were much greater, similar in magnitude to those observed among allopatric populations in other avian species. The geographical pattern of genetic variation in New Zealand suggests that reproductive isolation of populations and random drift have contributed to the development of population differentiation.     

South American Origins of Microctonus hyperodae Loan (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) Established in New Zealand as Defined by Morphometric Analysis

Eight South American geographic populations of the thelytokous parasitoid Microctonus hyperodae Loan (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) were released in New Zealand in 1991 to assist in the suppression of the pasture pest Listronotus bonariensis (Kuschel) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). With one exception, parasitoids from each South American geographic population were released in equal numbers at each New Zealand release site. It was postulated that the South American geographic population(s) best suited to the conditions encountered at each New Zealand release locality would eventually become prevalent there. A morphometric analysis of adult parasitoids of known South American origins, reported previously, allowed M. hyperodae derived from west of the Andes (i.e. two collection sites in Chile) to be distinguished from parasitoids derived from east of the Andes (i.e. three collection sites in Argentina and one each in Brazil and Uruguay). Parasitoids derived from a fourth site in Argentina (S. C. de Bariloche) could not be clearly discriminated from either the 'east of the Andes' or 'west of the Andes' categories. A morphometric analysis of M. hyperodae adults collected from five of the New Zealand release sites from 1992-1994 is presented in this contribution. The analysis indicated that parasitoids derived from east of the Andes were significantly more prevalent than expected. The possible reasons for the initial success in New Zealand of one or more east of the Andes populations include the greater fecundity of M. hyperodae collected in Uruguay and the likelihood that M. hyperodae from east of the Andes co-evolved more recently with the stock from which New Zealand's L. bonariensis was founded.     

Relative impacts of copepods, cladocerans and nutrients on the microbial food web of a mesotrophic lake

Calanoid copepods, rather than cladocerans, frequently dominatethe zooplankton of lakes in New Zealand. The potential consequencesof this domination for the microbial community of mesotrophicLake Mahinerangi, New Zealand, were determined by field experimentsin which Boeckella and Daphnia were added to in situ enclosuresin the presence and absence of added nutrients. Boeckella hamataat ambient densities (2 and 81^–1) rapidly and severelysuppressed ciliate population growth over 4 days, even whenmicrobial growth was enhanced by added nutrients, but effectsof copepods on other components of the microbial community (bacteria,photosynthetic picoplankton, heterotrophic nano-flagellates,algae) were slight. In contrast, Daphnia carinata at the samedensities (but 3-fold higher biomasses per litre) had a relativelyweak effect on ciliates, suppressing ciliate abundance onlyafter 4 days at 8 Daphnia 1^–1 (330 µg 1^–1);this daphniid density also depressed abundances of large bacterialrods, some photosynthetic picoplankton and the dominant alga,Cyclotella. These results highlight the relative importanceof specific trophic linkages in a microbial food web; they alsosuggest that the dominance of Boeckella in many southern hemispherelakes may account for relatively low ciliate abundances in theselakes.     

Vegetative Anatomy of Uncinia (Cyperaceae)

The vegetative anatomy of 18 (19) Uncinia spp. (Cyperaceae-Cariceae)including representatives of most taxonomic subdivisions wasstudied to determine the range of variation in certain anatomicaland morphological characters of the vegetative organs withinthe genus. The two South American species U. erinacea and U. kingii differfrom all others, the former in having a closed cylinder of sclerenchymain the culm, and the latter a grooved culm. The three tall SouthAmerican spp., U. brevicaulis, U. hamata, and U. phleoides var.trichocarpa, are characterized by adaxial intercostal fibrestrands in the leaves, and in this respect show affinities withtall New Zealand species, U. sinclairii and U. uncinata. Thelast species does not have the intercostal strands. The muchsmaller U. tenuis from S. America resembles, in the size andshape of transverse sections of leaf and culm, a group of speciesfrom New Zealand comprising U. angustifolia, U. egmontiana,and U. rupestris. To these could be added U. banksii, U. hookeri,and perhaps also U. tenella, although the last two spp. exhibitsome distinctive characters in the transverse section of theleaf and also in the leaf epidermis in surface view. No exactcounterpart to the Australian and New Zealand spp. U. divaricata,U. riparia, U. rubra and U. scabra was found amongst the S.American material. This group of spp. is distinctive, for example,because of the triangular or irregularly triangular shape oftransverse sections of the culm and the large amount of sclerenchymain transverse sections of the leaf. The range of structural variation appears to be particularlywide in the S. American spp., which represent two extreme typesin the shape of the leaf in transverse section. The other talland small species have their respective counterparts in eacharea, although they are more profusely represented in New Zealandthan in America, and therefore show a correspondingly greaterrange of structure.