Development of a pyrosequencing assay for rapid assessment of quinolone resistance in Acinetobacter baumannii isolates

Rapid and reliable assessment of Acinetobacter baumannii resistance to quinolones was successfully achieved through pyrosequencing of the gyrA and parC quinolone-resistance determining regions. A strong correlation was found between quinolone resistance and mutations in gyrA codon 83 and/or in the parC gene (codons 80 or 84). Absence of QRDR mutations was associated with susceptibility to quinolones.     

Comparative genomic analysis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis clinical isolates

Background

Due to excessive antibiotic use, drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis has become a serious public health threat and a major obstacle to disease control in many countries. To better understand the evolution of drug-resistant M. tuberculosis strains, we performed whole genome sequencing for 7 M. tuberculosis clinical isolates with different antibiotic resistance profiles and conducted comparative genomic analysis of gene variations among them.

Results

We observed that all 7 M. tuberculosis clinical isolates with different levels of drug resistance harbored similar numbers of SNPs, ranging from 1409–1464. The numbers of insertion/deletions (Indels) identified in the 7 isolates were also similar, ranging from 56 to 101. A total of 39 types of mutations were identified in drug resistance-associated loci, including 14 previously reported ones and 25 newly identified ones. Sixteen of the identified large Indels spanned PE-PPE-PGRS genes, which represents a major source of antigenic variability. Aside from SNPs and Indels, a CRISPR locus with varied spacers was observed in all 7 clinical isolates, suggesting that they might play an important role in plasticity of the M. tuberculosis genome. The nucleotide diversity (Л value) and selection intensity (dN/dS value) of the whole genome sequences of the 7 isolates were similar. The dN/dS values were less than 1 for all 7 isolates (range from 0.608885 to 0.637365), supporting the notion that M. tuberculosis genomes undergo purifying selection. The Л values and dN/dS values were comparable between drug-susceptible and drug-resistant strains.

Conclusions

In this study, we show that clinical M. tuberculosis isolates exhibit distinct variations in terms of the distribution of SNP, Indels, CRISPR-cas locus, as well as the nucleotide diversity and selection intensity, but there are no generalizable differences between drug-susceptible and drug-resistant isolates on the genomic scale. Our study provides evidence strengthening the notion that the evolution of drug resistance among clinical M. tuberculosis isolates is clearly a complex and diversified process.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-469) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

鲍曼不动杆菌中外排泵介导耐药机制的研究进展

外排泵的过表达是目前导致鲍曼不动杆菌多重耐药的最重要机制之一,详细了解这一复杂机制有助于尽快找到有效的防治策略。目前,鲍曼不动杆菌中已被报道的外排泵家族包括耐药结节细胞分化(resistance-nodulation-cell division,RND)家族、主要协同转运蛋白超家族(major facilitator superfamily,MFS)、多药及毒性化合物外排(multidrug and toxic compound extrusion,MATE)家族、小多重耐药(small multidrug resistance,SMR)家族。它们之中既有通过染色体介导的外排泵,也有通过质粒等遗传元件介导的外排泵。外排底物可呈现多样性,也可呈现专一性。本文就上述外排泵的种类、功能和调控机制进行综述。     

Characterization and Detection of Endolysin Gene from Three Acinetobacter baumannii Bacteriophages Isolated from Sewage Water

Acinetobacter baumannii is an opportunistic pathogen that exists in hospital environments. The emergence of multidrug resistant A. baumannii (MDRAB) has been reported worldwide. It is necessary to find a novel and effective treatment for MDRAB infection. In this study, three bacteriophages, designated as ØABP-01, ØABP-02 and ØABP-04 were selected for analysis. Transmission electron microscopy showed that bacteriophage ØABP-01 belonged to the Podoviridae family and bacteriophage ØABP-02 and ØABP-04 are classified into the family Myoviridae. ØABP-01 had the widest host range. ØABP-01, ØABP-02 and ØABP-04 exhibited a latent period of 15, 20 and 20 min. The burst sizes of the three bacteriophages were 110, 120 and 150 PFU/cell. DNA restriction analysis using EcoRI, HindIII, PstI, SphI, BamHI and SmaI showed different DNA fragment patterns between the three bacteriophages. ØABP-01 and ØABP-04 was positive for the endolysin gene as determined by PCR. In conclusion, bacteriophage ØABP-01 showed broad host-specificity, good lytic activity and a short latency period, making it an appropriate candidate for studying the control and diagnosis associated with MDRAB infections.     

CarO, an Acinetobacter baumannii outer membrane protein involved in carbapenem resistance, is essential for L-ornithine uptake

We previously associated the emergence of carbapenem resistance in Acinetobacter baumannii with the loss of an outer membrane (OM) protein designated CarO. CarO was found essential for L-ornithine uptake: CarO-deficient strains were specifically impaired to grow only on L-ornithine, and failed to incorporate L-[(14)C] ornithine from the medium. L-arginine, and histidine and lysine to a lower extent, could effectively compete for L-[(14)C] ornithine uptake. L-ornithine also reduced A. baumannii sensitivity to imipenem, suggesting that both compounds compete for uptake. The overall results indicate that CarO participates in the selective uptake of L-ornithine, carbapenems, and other basic amino acids in A. baumannii.     

鲍曼不动杆菌的基因分型及耐药性分析

目的分析上海某综合性医院不同科室来源的鲍曼不动杆菌菌株的同源性及耐药状况,了解鲍曼不动杆菌院内感染流行情况。方法采用重复序列PCR技术（REP-PCR）,对51株临床分离的鲍曼不动杆菌菌株进行基因分型,并用纸片扩散法进行药敏试验。结果51株鲍曼不动杆菌分为13个基因型,其中A型16株,为主要流行型别;C型、D型各6株;M型有5株;E型、F型和G型各3株;B型、H型和K型各2株;I型、J型、L型各1株。药敏试验结果显示分离出的菌株对常用抗菌药呈现出多重耐药的现象。其中对阿米卡星和亚胺培南的耐药性最低,均为33.3%;对头孢唑啉耐药性最高,为100%。结论鲍曼不动杆菌基因的同源性分析表明,该院存在着以A型鲍曼不动杆菌为主的感染流行,估计该型菌株可能以克隆株的形式播散。鲍曼不动杆菌的耐药性很强,应加强其耐药性监测,合理使用抗菌药物。     

分离自老年病房的鲍曼不动杆菌耐药机制初步研究*

目的:检测老年住院患者分离的鲍曼不动杆菌的主要耐药基因,并研究不同耐药基因型与耐药表型之间的对应关系。方法:用PCR方法检测分离自老年住院患者的不同标本来源的170例非重复鲍曼不动杆菌的耐药基因。检测的耐药基因包括D类碳青霉烯酶:bla_(OXA-51),bla_(OXA-23),bla_(OXA-24),bla_(OXA-58),B类金属碳青霉烯酶:bla_(VIM),bla_(IMP),bla_(SIM),bla_(GIM),bla_(DIM),bla_(NDM-1),以及A类超广谱β-内酰胺酶:blaKPC,共计11种。根据检测结果对菌株进行基因分型,并研究不同基因型与CRAB和CSAB这两种耐药表型之间的对应关系。结果:170株鲍曼不动杆菌的固有基因bla_(OXA-51)均为阳性,此外,主要检出基因为bla_(OXA-23),共124株。另外检测出blaKPC12株,bla OXA-58 6株,bla_(NDM-1)3株,bla_(SIM)2株,bla_(OXA-24)、bla_(VIM)和bla_(DIM)各1株,IMP和GIM未检出。根据检出耐药基因的不同组合,分为bla OXA-51+bla_(OXA-23)阳性为基础的A型(124株)及bla_(OXA-23)阴性为基础的B型(bla_(OXA-51),39株)、C型(bla_(OXA-51)+bla_(OXA-58),6株)、D型(bla_(OXA-51)+bla_(OXA-24),1株)共计四类基因型。从耐药表型来看,128株碳青霉烯耐药菌中有122株bla_(OXA-23)为阳性,在CRAB中占95.3%(122/128),42株碳青霉烯敏感株中,有40株bla_(OXA-23)为阴性,在CSAB中占95.2%(40/42)。结论:老年病房流行的耐碳青霉烯鲍曼不动杆菌的耐药基因型以bla_(OXA-23)阳性为主。其与鲍曼不动杆菌CRAB耐药表型、bla_(OXA-23)阴性与CSAB耐药表型之间有良好的对应关系。     

Structural and Functional Characterization of Acinetobacter baumannii Nucleoside Diphosphate Kinase

近年来,鲍曼不动杆菌(Acinetobacter baumannii)在医院里越来越受到人们的关注,尤其是在重症监护病房(ICUs)．它以强大的多重耐药性(multiresistance)而闻名．核苷二磷酸激酶(nucleoside diphosphate kinase,NDK)是一种进化上非常保守的酶,它能催化核苷之间磷酸基团的转移．我们解析了鲍曼不动杆菌NDK野生型和C端氨基酸残基Arg141-Thr142-Arg143(RTR)截短突变体的结构．通过和黄色黏菌(Myxococcus xanthus)NDK的三维结构进行比较,推断鲍曼不动杆菌NDK的催化机制和黄色黏菌类似．通过激酶活性实验和圆二色谱实验,发现鲍曼不动杆菌NDK E28A突变体二级结构发生了改变,从而导致蛋白催化活性降低,说明Glu28是鲍曼不动杆菌NDK结构中非常关键的氨基酸残基．鲍曼不动杆菌NDK C端RTR截短突变体显示出催化活性极大的降低,这可能与C端RTR残基介导的二体间相互作用有关．虽然RTR截短突变体中的Lys33伸向了和野生型中不同的方向,和Val15产生相互作用弥补了一部分因为RTR截短丢失的相互作用,维持了RTR截短突变体和野生型类似的结构．但是,Lys33产生的相互作用依然太弱,不足以维持蛋白在催化的动态过程中整体结构的高效转换．我们解析的鲍曼不动杆菌NDK晶体高分辨率结构将有助于科学家设计针对鲍曼不动杆菌的药物．     

鲍曼不动杆菌的临床分布及药物敏感性结果分析

目的了解鲍曼不动杆菌的临床分布及药物敏感性分析。方法收集2004年5月至2006年5月抚顺市中心医院住院及门诊患者的临床标本,从中分离鲍曼不动杆菌。质控菌株:大肠埃希菌ATCC 25922,铜绿假单胞菌ATCC 27853,采用美国BD公司生产的凤凰微生物鉴定/药敏分析仪,对62株鲍曼不动杆菌进行鉴定和药物敏感测定并分析其临床分布。结果62株鲍曼不动杆菌感染率高的有呼吸病房22例(35.5%),干部病房14例(22.6%),标本类型以痰为主52例(83.9%)。药敏监测该细菌对17种抗生素的耐药情况为亚胺培南、美洛培南、氨苄西林/舒巴坦、左氧氟沙星的敏感率较高,分别为100%、100%、75.8%、70.9%。有头孢唑林、氨苄西林、奥格门丁、氨曲南耐药率为90.3%、88.7%、80.6%、77.4%。结论鲍曼不动杆菌最有效的抗生素是亚胺培南、美洛培南,一旦临床发生感染,应及时调整和选用合理抗生素治疗,避免滥用抗生素,防止耐药菌株的产生,提高临床治愈率。     

鲍曼不动杆菌超广谱β-内酰胺酶检测及耐药性分析

为了解厦门中山医院鲍曼不动杆菌产超广谱β 内酰胺酶(ESBLs)情况及耐药现状,指导临床用药,采用美国临床实验室标准化委员会(NCCLS)推荐的纸片扩散法,测定 2002 ~2003年临床分离的 211株鲍曼不动杆菌产ESBLs的比例及其对头孢噻肟、阿米卡星等 13种抗菌药物耐药性特征。结果表明 211株鲍曼不动杆菌中ESBLs阳性 27株(占 12. 8% ),产ESBLs菌株对 13种抗菌药物的耐药率明显高于非产ESBLs株。鲍曼不动杆菌的产ESBLs株有较高的交叉耐药性,采用纸片确证实验检出ESBLs对于临床用药有一定的指导意义。     

Distribution and molecular profiling of class 1 integrons in MDR Acinetobacter baumannii isolates and whole genome-based analysis of antibiotic resistance mechanisms in a representative strain

The class 1 integron is an important driver of the nosocomial dissemination of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria, such as Acinetobacters. In this study, we characterized the gene cassette arrays of class 1 integrons in Acinetobacter baumannii, where the detailed structure of these integrons for 38 clinical strains was analyzed. The results showed that there are three types of gene cassette arrays that are carried by different class 1 integrons, among them the aac(6′)-IId-catB8-aadA1 array was the most prevalent. For detailed analysis of the integron structure, whole genome sequencing was carried out on strain AB16, and it was found that a single integron on its chromosome has a partial Tn21 transposon in its 5′ flanking region and two complete copies of the insertion element IS26 in both the 5′ and 3′ flanking regions, indicating that the integron could be acquired by horizontal gene transfer. Furthermore, there is one resistance island AbaR22, one bla gene containing a transposon, four intrinsic resistant genes and one efflux pump that together confer six types of antibiotic resistance.     

Structural and serological characterisation of the O-antigenic polysaccharide of the lipopolysaccharide from Acinetobacter baumannii strain 24

Extraction of dry bacteria of Acinetobacter baumannii strain 24 by phenol-water yielded a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) that was studied by serological methods and fatty acid analysis. After immunisation of BALB/c mice with this strain, monoclonal antibody S48-3-13 (IgG(3) isotype) was obtained, which reacted with the LPS in western blot and characterized it as S-form LPS. Degradation of the LPS in aqueous 1% acetic acid followed by GPC gave the O-antigenic polysaccharide, whose structure was determined by compositional analyses and NMR spectroscopy of the polysaccharide and O-deacylated polysaccharide as [carbohydrate structure: see text] where QuiN4N is 2,4-diamino-2,4,6-trideoxyglucose and GalNAcA 2-acetamido-2-deoxygalacturonic acid. The amino group at C-4 of the QuipN4N residues is acetylated in about 2/3 of LPS molecules and (S)-3-hydroxybutyrylated in the rest.     

High levels of multiple metal resistance and its correlation to antibiotic resistance in environmental isolates of Acinetobacter

Forty strains of Acinetobacter were isolated from different environmental sources. All the strains were classified into four genospecies, i.e. A. baumannii (33 isolates), A. calcoaceticus (three isolates), A. junii (three isolates) and A. genospecies3 (one isolate). Susceptibility of these 40 strains to salts of 20 heavy metals and 18 antibiotics was tested by the agar dilution method. All environmental isolates of Acinetobacter were resistant to multiple metal ions (minimum 13 metal ions) while all but one of the strains were resistant to multiple antibiotics (minimum four antibiotics). The maximum number of strains were found to be sensitive to mercury (60% strains) while all strains were resistant to copper, lead, boron and tungsten even at 10 mm concentration. Salts of these four metal ions may be added to the growth medium to facilitate selective isolation of Acinetobacter. Rifampicin and nalidixic acid were the most toxic antibiotics, inhibiting 94.5 and 89.5% of the acinetobacters, respectively. A. genospecies3 was found to be the most resistant species, tolerating high concentrations of all the 20 metal ions and also to a greater number of antibiotics than any other species of Acinetobacter tested. An inhibitory concentration (10 mm) of Ni²⁺ and Zn²⁺ was observed to inhibit the growth of all of the clinical isolates but allowed the growth of the environmental isolates, facilitating the differentiation between pathogenic and non-pathogenic acinetobacters.     

克雷伯氏菌属(Klebsiella)细菌比较基因组学分析揭示多复制子抗性质粒介导广泛的抗性基因传播

[目的] 研究克雷伯氏菌与多复制子抗性质粒间的关系,分析细菌携带多复制子质粒对抗生素环境的响应机制。[方法] 以2018-2020年分离的56株不同来源克雷伯氏菌（Klebsiella sp.）分离株为研究对象,利用微量肉汤稀释法评估其多重耐药表型,对分离菌株进行全基因组测序（WGS）,通过细菌全基因组关联分析（BGWAS）技术和比较基因组学方法深入解析多复制子抗性质粒形成的机制。[结果] 耐药表型分析发现野生动物来源的菌株具有更广的耐药谱系,总体Klebsiella sp.对氨苄西林表现出很高的耐药率（80.36%）,尤其是马来穿山甲来源菌株对头孢类抗生素高度耐受,同时对氯霉素、左氧氟沙星和复方新诺明等药物耐受,基因组分析发现这些菌株携带了抗性质粒和更多的抗生素抗性基因。进一步对69个质粒序列分析,发现有28个质粒为多复制子质粒,主要携带bla_CTX-M-15、bla_CTX-M-14、bla_CTX-M-55、bla_OXA-1和bla_TEM-1等β-内酰胺酶基因。细菌携带质粒类型分析认为Klebsiella pneumoniae可能是多复制子质粒的重要宿主,质粒骨架与结构分析发现多复制子质粒多由2个或2个以上单个质粒融合而成,携带此类质粒的菌株不仅获得了更广的耐药表型,而且在全球传播扩散分布逐年增加,因此产生对抗生素环境更强的适应性。[结论] 多重耐药性细菌呈现的表型与携带的多复制子质粒有关,相比较下多复制子质粒比非多复制子质粒有更强的抗性基因携带能力,或许是细菌在强大的抗生素压力下产生的重要响应机制。本研究对于未来探索细菌抗性基因的传播扩散机制具有重要意义。     

鲍曼不动杆菌体外诱导耐药及其诱导前后交叉耐药和呼吸耗氧率分析

【背景】鲍曼不动杆菌是院内感染的重要病原菌,因其耐药率高、治疗难度大而备受关注。然而,对于该菌的交叉耐药及耐药相关因素尚未完全阐明。【目的】通过体外诱导分别获得耐美罗培南或耐替加环素的鲍曼不动杆菌菌株,并研究其诱导前后的交叉耐药性和细菌呼吸耗氧率差异。【方法】采用多步法对鲍曼不动杆菌ATCC19606进行体外诱导耐药,PCR扩增诱导前后菌株的16S rRNA基因并测序鉴定,微量肉汤稀释法检测诱导前后鲍曼不动杆菌对美罗培南、亚胺培南、替加环素、阿米卡星、头孢吡肟及左氧氟沙星等抗菌药物的最低抑菌浓度变化,Seahorse XF^e96细胞能量代谢实时测定仪对诱导前后菌株的耗氧率进行分析。【结果】通过88d的体外诱导实验,分别获得耐美罗培南或耐替加环素的鲍曼不动杆菌ATCC19606菌株。耐美罗培南鲍曼不动杆菌ATCC19606对替加环素、亚胺培南、阿米卡星、左氧氟沙星仍处于敏感状态,但是对头孢吡肟交叉耐药;耐替加环素鲍曼不动杆菌ATCC19606对美罗培南、亚胺培南、阿米卡星、左氧氟沙星及头孢吡肟仍处于敏感状态。鲍曼不动杆菌ATCC19606被美罗培南或替加环素诱导耐药...     

Comparative genomic analysis reveals occurrence of genetic recombination in virulent Cryptosporidium hominis subtypes and telomeric gene duplications in Cryptosporidium parvum

Background

Cryptosporidium hominis is a dominant species for human cryptosporidiosis. Within the species, IbA10G2 is the most virulent subtype responsible for all C. hominis–associated outbreaks in Europe and Australia, and is a dominant outbreak subtype in the United States. In recent yearsIaA28R4 is becoming a major new subtype in the United States. In this study, we sequenced the genomes of two field specimens from each of the two subtypes and conducted a comparative genomic analysis of the obtained sequences with those from the only fully sequenced Cryptosporidium parvum genome.

Results

Altogether, 8.59-9.05 Mb of Cryptosporidium sequences in 45–767 assembled contigs were obtained from the four specimens, representing 94.36-99.47% coverage of the expected genome. These genomes had complete synteny in gene organization and 96.86-97.0% and 99.72-99.83% nucleotide sequence similarities to the published genomes of C. parvum and C. hominis, respectively. Several major insertions and deletions were seen between C. hominis and C. parvum genomes, involving mostly members of multicopy gene families near telomeres. The four C. hominis genomes were highly similar to each other and divergent from the reference IaA25R3 genome in some highly polymorphic regions. Major sequence differences among the four specimens sequenced in this study were in the 5′ and 3′ ends of chromosome 6 and the gp60 region, largely the result of genetic recombination.

Conclusions

The sequence similarity among specimens of the two dominant outbreak subtypes and genetic recombination in chromosome 6, especially around the putative virulence determinant gp60 region, suggest that genetic recombination plays a potential role in the emergence of hyper-transmissible C. hominis subtypes. The high sequence conservation between C. parvum and C. hominis genomes and significant differences in copy numbers of MEDLE family secreted proteins and insulinase-like proteases indicate that telomeric gene duplications could potentially contribute to host expansion in C. parvum.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-1517-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Incidence of antibiotic resistance and virulence determinants among Enterococcus italicus isolates from dairy products

The main objective of this work was to investigate the biosafety of Enterococcus italicus, a recently described enterococcal species widely diffused in dairy products. For this purpose, the antibiotic susceptibility and the incidence of virulence factors among 30 E. italicus isolates originating mainly from different Italian cheeses were tested. Although not all 30 isolates showed unique genotypes, PCR fingerprinting evidenced a notable genotypic diversity among the E. italicus collection under study. All isolates were susceptible to vancomycin, gentamicin, erythromycin, ampicillin, chloramphenicol and bacitracin. Five isolates corresponding to three unique genotypes exhibited phenotypic resistance to tetracycline with MICs ranging from 64-256mug/ml. By PCR-based detection, the genetic basis of the Tet(R) phenotype in these strains was linked to the tet(S) gene whereas detection of tet(L) and tet(M) genes and the integrase element int of the Tn916/Tn1545 family of transposons were negative. Likewise, none of the strains appeared to contain any of the tested virulence genes gelE, asaI, cpd, agg, cylA, cylB, cylM, ace and hyl(Efm). The results of this study warrant further research into the environmental dissemination of Tet(R)E. italicus and into the potential transferability of its tet(S) genes.     

Comparative genomic analysis of Ralstonia solanacearum reveals candidate genes for host specificity

Background

Ralstonia solanacearum is a vascular soil-borne plant pathogen with an unusually broad host range. This economically destructive and globally distributed bacterium has thousands of distinct lineages within a heterogeneous and taxonomically disputed species complex. Some lineages include highly host-adapted strains (ecotypes), such as the banana Moko disease-causing strains, the cold-tolerant potato brown rot strains (also known as R3bv2) and the recently emerged Not Pathogenic to Banana (NPB) strains.

Results

These distinct ecotypes offer a robust model to study host adaptation and the emergence of ecotypes because the polyphyletic Moko strains include lineages that are phylogenetically close to the monophyletic brown rot and NPB strains. Draft genomes of eight new strains belonging to these three model ecotypes were produced to complement the eleven publicly available R. solanacearum genomes. Using a suite of bioinformatics methods, we searched for genetic and evolutionary features that distinguish ecotypes and propose specific hypotheses concerning mechanisms of host adaptation in the R. solanacearum species complex. Genome-wide, few differences were identified, but gene loss events, non-synonymous polymorphisms, and horizontal gene transfer were identified among type III effectors and were associated with host range differences.

Conclusions

This extensive comparative genomics analysis uncovered relatively few divergent features among closely related strains with contrasting biological characteristics; however, several virulence factors were associated with the emergence of Moko, NPB and brown rot and could explain host adaptation.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12864-015-1474-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Comparative genome sequencing reveals chemotype-specific gene clusters in the toxigenic black mold Stachybotrys

Background

The fungal genus Stachybotrys produces several diverse toxins that affect human health. Its strains comprise two mutually-exclusive toxin chemotypes, one producing satratoxins, which are a subclass of trichothecenes, and the other producing the less-toxic atranones. To determine the genetic basis for chemotype-specific differences in toxin production, the genomes of four Stachybotrys strains were sequenced and assembled de novo. Two of these strains produce atranones and two produce satratoxins.

Results

Comparative analysis of these four 35-Mbp genomes revealed several chemotype-specific gene clusters that are predicted to make secondary metabolites. The largest, which was named the core atranone cluster, encodes 14 proteins that may suffice to produce all observed atranone compounds via reactions that include an unusual Baeyer-Villiger oxidation. Satratoxins are suggested to be made by products of multiple gene clusters that encode 21 proteins in all, including polyketide synthases, acetyltransferases, and other enzymes expected to modify the trichothecene skeleton. One such satratoxin chemotype-specific cluster is adjacent to the core trichothecene cluster, which has diverged from those of other trichothecene producers to contain a unique polyketide synthase.

Conclusions

The results suggest that chemotype-specific gene clusters are likely the genetic basis for the mutually-exclusive toxin chemotypes of Stachybotrys. A unified biochemical model for Stachybotrys toxin production is presented. Overall, the four genomes described here will be useful for ongoing studies of this mold’s diverse toxicity mechanisms.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-590) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.