不同土壤水分条件下土壤容重对玉米根系生长的影响

用玉米作为实验材料进行分根实验。种子根平分在装有土娄土的分隔的白铁皮桶中。土壤容重分 4种处理 :低容重 (两边容重都为 1 .2 0 g· cm-3 )、中容重 (两边容重都为1 .33g· cm-3 )、高容重 (两边容重都为 1 .45g· cm-3 )和混合容重 (一边为 1 .2 0 g· cm-3 ,另一边为 1 .45g· cm-3 )。土壤水分控制在高基质势 (- 0 .1 7MPa)和低基质势 (- 0 .86MPa) 2个水平。结果表明 :当植株生长在高紧实土壤或土壤基质势从 - 0 .1 7MPa降到 - 0 .86 MPa时 ,根长和根干重都显著降低 ;紧实土壤使根长降低的同时还使根的直径增大。然而 ,当植株生长在混合容重土壤中时 ,处在低容重土壤中的根系生长得到加强 ,补偿甚至超补偿高容重土壤中根系生长的不足     

Relationships between root diameter,root length and root branching along lateral roots in adult,field-grown maize

Background and Aims Root diameter, especially apical diameter, plays an important role in root development and function. The variation in diameter between roots, and along roots, affects root structure and thus the root system’s overall foraging performance. However, the effect of diameter variation on root elongation, branching and topological connections has not been examined systematically in a population of high-order roots, nor along the roots, especially for mature plants grown in the field.Methods A method combining both excavation and analysis was applied to extract and quantify root architectural traits of adult, field-grown maize plants. The relationships between root diameter and other root architectural characteristics are analysed for two maize cultivars.Key Results The basal diameter of the lateral roots (orders 1–3) was highly variable. Basal diameter was partly determined by the diameter of the bearing segment. Basal diameter defined a potential root length, but the lengths of most roots fell far short of this. This was explained partly by differences in the pattern of diameter change along roots. Diameter tended to decrease along most roots, with the steepness of the gradient of decrease depending on basal diameter. The longest roots were those that maintained (or sometimes increased) their diameters during elongation. The branching density (cm^–1) of laterals was also determined by the diameter of the bearing segment. However, the location of this bearing segment along the mother root was also involved – intermediate positions were associated with higher densities of laterals.Conclusions The method used here allows us to obtain very detailed records of the geometry and topology of a complex root system. Basal diameter and the pattern of diameter change along a root were associated with its final length. These relationships are especially useful in simulations of root elongation and branching in source–sink models.     

Study of differences between vertical root maps observed in a maize crop and simulated maps obtained using a model for the three-dimensional architecture of the root system

Differences between observed and simulated vertical root maps were studied in an attempt to evaluate the predictive ability of a simulation model of root system architecture under field conditions on mature plants, and to identify avenues for improvement. Some methodological problems associated with root mapping in the field are considered with a sensitivity analysis.Comparisons were made on a maize crop (early maturing hybrid F1 cultivar Dea) 15 days after silking. Four vertical root maps, perpendicular to the row and midway between two successive plants, were observed. Simulated root maps for different locations along the row showed essentially the same pattern, attesting of an approximately two-dimensional distribution of the roots in such a crop. Simulation of the intesection of roots with thin layers (thickness from 0 to 20 mm) instead of a perfect plane allowed us to assess effects due to the roughness of actual trench walls, and possible artefacts in the observation of root intersections. The simulated root profiles were very sensitive to this thickness, especially in the 0–5 mm range, in both average values, and overall shape. Actual data were close to the 3 mm thick simulations. This value seems plausible under our field conditions.Differences between simulated and actual root maps were shown to be mostly accounted for by the variations in soil bulk density. Thus, this environmental parameter appears as the most important one to include into the model for improving its predictions.     

根区湿润方式对玉米根系生长发育的影响

将厚塑料紧密地固定在盆栽试验用桶壁和底的中央,玉米种子播种于厚塑料布的正上方,在均匀灌水、固定部分根区灌水和根系分区交替灌水3种方式下,分期测定两个1／2根区根系的长度、面积、干重以及单位面积的平均根长和比根长,研究不同根区根系的生长发育特征。结果表明,处理40d时,与其他根区相比,固定灌水非灌水区的比根长和单位面积平均根长明显增大,说明土壤水分减少使根系直径变小。根面积、长度以及干重的增长速率均表现为,处理0～5d内,与均匀灌水及其非灌水区相比,两种局部灌水的灌水区均显著增大;处理10～15d内,交替灌水的灌水区较其他根区明显增大,固定灌水的灌水区与均匀灌水相近。固定灌水时,灌水区根系的面积、长度、干重及其增长速率较之非灌水区显著增大;交替灌水时,两个根区的增长速率呈交替变化,其绝对数值随时间延长趋于相同。表明交替灌水不仅可刺激供水区根系的补偿生长,而且对恢复供水区也有补偿效应,并能够促使不同根区的根系均衡发展。     

Arterial branching within the confines of fractal L-system formalism

Parametric Lindenmayer systems (L-systems) are formulated to generate branching tree structures that can incorporate the physiological laws of arterial branching. By construction, the generated trees are de facto fractal structures, and with appropriate choice of parameters, they can be made to exhibit some of the branching patterns of arterial trees, particularly those with a preponderant value of the asymmetry ratio. The question of whether arterial trees in general have these fractal characteristics is examined by comparison of pattern with vasculature from the cardiovascular system. The results suggest that parametric L-systems can be used to produce fractal tree structures but not with the variability in branching parameters observed in arterial trees. These parameters include the asymmetry ratio, the area ratio, branch diameters, and branching angles. The key issue is that the source of variability in these parameters is not known and, hence, it cannot be accurately reproduced in a model. L-systems with a random choice of parameters can be made to mimic some of the observed variability, but the legitimacy of that choice is not clear.     

Estimation of tree root lengths using fractal branching rules: a comparison with soil coring for Grevillea robusta

Previous theoretical research has suggested that lengths of tree roots can be estimated on the basis of their branching characteristics, if branching has a fractal pattern that is independent of root diameter. This theory and its underlying assumptions was tested for Grevillea robusta trees at a site in Kenya by comparing estimates of root length from conventional soil coring and the output of a fractal branching algorithm. The trees were in a 4-year-old stand established on a 3 × 4 m planting grid. Root lengths (L _r) in four units of the planting grid were estimated by soil coring. Branching characteristics determined by examination of 32 excavated roots from 16 trees were: The number of branches at each branching point; the length of links between branching points (L _l); the diameter of root tips; and parameters which describe the change in diameter at each branching point. Each was found to be independent of root size. These data were used to parameterise a branching algorithm, which was then used to estimate numbers of root links in the four grid units (n _l) from root diameters at the bases of the four trees at the corners of each unit. Root lengths, from L _r = n₁ L₁, severely underestimated L _r. This discrepancy probably resulted from inaccuracy in the parameterisation of the branching algorithm, as output from the algorithm was very sensitive to small changes in parameter values. Use of fractal branching rules alone to estimate roots length does not appear possible unless the algorithm is calibrated to adjust for errors in parameter estimation. Calibration can be achieved by calculation of an 'effective link length', L ^eff ₁, from L _r/n _l, where L _r is measured by a reference method such as soil coring.     

Modelling the effect of varying soil water on root growth dynamics of annual crops

We present a simple framework for modelling root growth and distribution with depth under varying soil water conditions. The framework considers the lateral growth of roots (proliferation) and the vertical extension of roots (root front velocity). The root front velocity is assumed to be constant when the roots descend into an initially wet soil profile. The lateral growth of roots is governed by two factors: (1) the current root mass or root length density at a given depth, and (2) soil water availability at that depth.Under non-limiting soil water conditions, the increase in root mass at any depth is governed by a logistic equation so that the root length density (R _v) cannot exceed the maximum value. The maximumR _v, is assumed to be the same for all depths. Additional dry matter partitioned to roots is initially distributed according to the current root mass at each depth. As the root mass approaches the maximum value, less dry matter is partitioned to that depth.When soil water is limiting, a water deficit factor is introduced to further modify the distribution of root dry matter. It is assumed that the plant is an energy minimiser so that more root mass is partitioned to the wetter regions of the soil where least energy will be expended for root growth. Hence, the model allows for enhanced root growth in areas where soil water is more easily available.Simulation results show that a variety of root distribution patterns can be reproduced due to varying soil water conditions. It has been demonstrated that broad patterns of root distribution reported in the literature can also be simulated by the model.     

Tillage and N fertilization effects on maize root growth and root:shoot ratio

Two methods for estimating the size of the maize (Zea mays l.) root system from soil cores taken in the field were compared. The spatially weighed block method of estimation accounted for variation in root density by using 18 samples per plant which varied in distance from plant and soil depth. This method was compared to an estimation which averaged all of the 18 samples together. Both methods gave surprisingly similar estimates for total root growth. Increased root growth in the surface soil layers, due to tillage and N fertilization, did not impact on the estimation of total root growth. Total root length remained unchanged or increased with N fertilization, while root weight remained the same or decreased. Root mass per length decreased with N fertilization. The estimated size of the root system was used to calculate root:shoot weight ratios. The largest root:shoot ratio was found in the vegetative stage and decreased throughout the rest of the season. In this field experiment, the estimated size of the root system at 8 weeks after planting was not significantly different from the size at silking or harvest. Nitrogen fertilization significantly decreased the root:shoot weight ratio. However, tillage did not significantly change the ratio.     

Simulation model of soil compaction and root growth

Soil compaction is a widespread cause of reduced plant productivity. If the effects of soil compaction on plant growth are to be reproduced in simulation models, then the processes through which compaction reduces root elongation must be expressed mathematically and then tested against experimental data. The mathematical theory by which these processes may be represented is given in the accompanying article. In this article, the behavior of a simulation model based on this theory is tested against data for root growth and soil gas concentration recorded from soil columns of which the middle layers were compacted to different bulk densities. The model was able to reproduce the failure of the root system to penetrate the compacted middle layer within the period of the experiment when bulk density exceeded 1.55 Mg m^-3. The model also reproduced decreases in O₂ concentrations, and increases in CO₂ concentrations, in the atmospheres of the compacted layer and of the uncompacted layer below it as bulk density of the compacted layer increased. The simulated time course of O₂ and nutrient uptake and of O₂ concentrations in the compacted layer at different depths is presented and its consistency with experimental findings is examined. As part of a larger ecosystem model, this model will be useful in estimating site-specific effects of soil compaction on carbon cycling in agroecosystems.     

Modelling and simulation of the architecture and development of the oil-palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) root system

A stochastic model of oil-palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) root system architecture and development has been developed. This model enabled us to create 3-D numerical models of complete root systems by simulation. The application of a postprocessor software, called RACINES, to these 3-D numerical models, provided an estimation of some parameters of plant root systems. The objective of this paper is to present oil-palm root characteristics as possible outputs of the application of this RACINES software. The outputs described in this article cover (i) spatial distribution of roots under plantation conditions, (ii) the estimation and distribution of total root biomass, per root type or per soil horizon and (iii) the location and quantification of absorbent surfaces. The computing techniques used were based on voxellization of space and creation of 3-D virtual sceneries exactly reproducing observed planting designs. By comparing the results of observations and simulations for spatial distribution (by trench wall density maps) and root biomasses (by real and virtual sampling) we were able to carry out additional numerical validations of the model.     

Effect of cyclic wetting and drying of a soil on root hair growth of maize roots

The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of cyclic soil wetting and drying on maize (Zea mays L.) root hair growth. Three soils, Chalmers silty clay loam (Typic Haplaquolls), Raub silt loam (Aquic Argiudolls) and Aubbeenaubbee sandy loam (Aric Ochraqualfs) and two soil moisture contents, −175 (M₀) and −7.5 kPa (M₁), were used to study root hair growth in a controlled-climate chamber. Increasing soil moisture after 7d from M₀ and M₁ resulted in a cessation of root hair growth behind the root cap while drying the soil after 7d from M₁ and M₀ promoted root hair growth on new but not old or existing roots. By maintaining liquid continuity under cyclic wetting and drying of a soil, root hairs may be of far greater significance to the nutrition of the plant than originally thought. Journal Paper No. 11023, Purdue Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn., W. Lafayette, IN 47907. Contribution from the Dep. of Agron.     

Influence of root density on the critical soil water potential

Estimation of root water uptake in crops is important for making many other agricultural predictions. This estimation often involves two assumptions: (1) that a critical soil water potential exists which is constant for a given combination of soil and crop and which does not depend on root length density, and (2) that the local root water uptake at given soil water potential is proportional to root length density. Recent results of both mathematical modeling and computer tomography show that these assumptions may not be valid when the soil water potential is averaged over a volume of soil containing roots. We tested these assumptions for plants with distinctly different root systems. Root water uptake rates and the critical soil water potential values were determined in several adjacent soil layers for horse bean (Vicia faba) and oat (Avena sativa) grown in lysimeters, and for field-grown cotton (Gossypium L.), maize (Zea mays) and alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) crops. Root water uptake was calculated from the water balance of each layer in lysimeters. Water uptake rate was proportional to root length density at high soil water potentials, for both horse bean and oat plants, but root water uptake did not depend on root density for horse bean at potentials lower than −25 kPa. We observed a linear dependency of a critical soil water potential on the logarithm of root length density for all plants studied. Soil texture modified the critical water potential values, but not the linearity of the relationship. B E Clothier Section editor     

Modelling the influence of assimilate availability on root growth and architecture

A model has been designed to simulate rubber seedling root development as related to assimilate availability. Each root of the system is defined both as an element of a network of axes, characterized by its order, position and connections and as an individual sink competing for assimilates. At each time step, the growth of each root is calculated as a function of its own growth potential and of assimilate availability calculated within the whole plant. The potential elongation rate of a root is estimated by its apical diameter, which reflects the size of the meristem. When a root is initiated, the apical diameter depends on root type, but it varies thereafter according to assimilate availability. Thus, the latter controls both current and potential elongation. The model was able to simulate periodicity in root development as related to shoot growth and to reproduce differences in sensitivity to assimilate availability related to root type. It thereby validated the hypothesis that root growth but also root system architecture depend on assimilate allocation and that apical diameter is a good indicator of root growth potential. Provided that specific calibration is done, this model may be used for other species.     

Importance of the cap in maize root growth

A large population of primary roots of Zea mays (cv. LG 11) was selected for uniform length at zero time. Their individual growth rates were measured over an 8-h period in the vertical position (in humid air, darkness). Three groups of these roots with significantly different growth rates were then chosen and their cap length was measured. It was found that slowly growing roots had long caps whereas rapidly growing roots had short caps. The production by the cap cells of basipetally transported growth inhibitors was tested (biologically by the curvature of half-decapped roots) and found to be significantly higher for longer root caps than that for shorter ones.     

春玉米根系生育特征与冠层关系的研究

以农田实际观测资料为依据,分析了春玉米根系生育特征及其与冠层生长的关系,并提出了定量描述方程;较详细地阐述了水分条件对根系生长的影响,指出利用根系伸展深度确定灌溉计划湿润深度和进行根冠调控,以指导农田优化灌溉的可行性。     

不同质地土壤对花生根系生长、分布和产量的影响

为了探究土壤类型与花生(Arachis hypogaea)根系生长及产量之间的关系, 采用箱栽的方法, 研究了不同质地土壤(砂土、壤土、黏土)对花生根系生长、分布和产量的影响。砂土和壤土中花生根系干物质重各时期均显著高于黏土中, 但生育后期黏土中花生根系干物质重比壤土和砂土下降相对较慢。从不同类型土壤质地根系分布及根系活力来看, 黏土根系主要分布在上层土壤, 但上层土壤根系活力后期下降慢; 砂土有利于花生根系向深层土壤生长, 但上层土壤根系活力后期下降快; 而壤土对花生根系生长和活力时空分布的影响介于黏土和砂土之间。砂土有利于花生荚果的膨大, 且花生荚果干物质积累早而快, 但后期荚果干物质重积累少; 壤土的花生荚果干物质积累中后期多, 黏土则在整个生育期均不利于花生荚果干物质积累。最终荚果产量、籽仁产量和有效果数均表现为壤土最大、砂土次之、黏土最小。研究表明通气性和保肥保水能力居中的壤土更适合花生的根系生长发育及产量的形成。     

System analysis of microRNAs in the development and aluminium stress responses of the maize root system

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of regulatory small RNAs (sRNAs) that down‐regulate target genes through mRNA cleavage or translational inhibition. miRNA is known to play an important role in the root development and environmental responses in both the Arabidopsis and rice. However, little information is available to form a complete view of miRNAs in the development of the maize root system and Al stress responses in maize. Four sRNA libraries were generated and sequenced from the early developmental stage of primary roots (PRY), the later developmental stage of maize primary roots (PRO), seminal roots (SR) and crown roots (CR). Through integrative analysis, we identified 278 miRNAs (246 conserved and 32 novel ones) and found that the expression patterns of miRNAs differed dramatically in different maize roots. The potential targets of the identified conserved and novel miRNAs were also predicted. In addition, our data showed that CR is more resistant to Al stress compared with PR and SR, and the differentially expressed miRNAs are likely to play significant roles in different roots in response to environmental stress such as Al stress. Here, we demonstrate that the expression patterns of miRNAs are highly diversified in different maize roots. The differentially expressed miRNAs are correlated with both the development and environmental responses in the maize root. This study not only improves our knowledge about the roles of miRNAs in maize root development but also reveals the potential role of miRNAs in the environmental responses of different maize roots.     

Significance of temperature and precipitation for maize root distribution in the field

Measurements of maize (Zea mays L.) root distribution with depth in the soil for nine years in a 11-year period revealed significantly different distribution patterns. Weather variations were expected to be related to the amount of roots found in each of the five 15-cm soil layers. The objective of this study was to attempt to explain root distribution in the field on the basis of precipitation and temperature data for the nine growing seasons. Growing degree days (GDD), accumulated in daily increments from planting to silking, were used to describe temperature effects. Correlations were calculated for weekly time increments of GDD versus root length densities at silking in all soil layers. Root length density below 30 cm was correlated (P=0.05) with GDD for two weeks following planting, whereas no relation was found between GDD and root length density in the topsoil. Amount of precipitation was accumulated in weekly increments from silking to planting and correlated with root length density in the soil layers at silking. This procedure evaluated the relation between precipitation and root growth during the vegetative growth period. Root length density in the 0 to 15 cm layer was found to be related significantly (P=0.05) to precipitation. The period 3 weeks prior silking gave the highest correlation coefficient (r=0.79). Journal Paper no. 10,629. Purdue Univ. Agric. Exp. Stn., W. Lafayette, IN 47907. Contribution from the Dep. of Agronomy. The research was supported in part by BARD, United States-Israel Binational Agricultural Research and Development Fund, and Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.