Temporal analysis of gene expression in a field population of the Scleractinian coral Montastraea faveolata

Organisms maintain homeostasis and abate cellular damage by altering gene expression. Coral colonies have been shown to produce unique gene expression patterns in response to different environmental stimuli. In order to understand these induced changes, the natural variation in expression of genetic biomarkers needs to be determined. In this study, an array of genes isolated from Scleractinian coral was used to track changes in gene expression within a population of Montastraea faveolata from April to October 2001 in the Florida Keys. The profiles of genes observed in this study can be divided into two groups based on expression over this time period. In spring and early summer, May through July, most of the genes show little deviation from their average level of expression. In August and September, several genes show large deviations from their average level of expression. The physiological and environmental triggers for the observed changes in gene expression have not yet been identified, but the results show that our coral stress gene array can be used to track temporal changes in gene expression in a natural coral population.     

High zooxanthella density shortens the survival time of coral cell aggregates under thermal stress

To investigate bleaching mechanisms in coral-zooxanthella symbiotic systems, it is important to study the cellular- or tissue-level responses of corals to stress. We established an experimental system to study the stress responses of coral cells using coral cell aggregates. Dissociated coral cells aggregate to form spherical bodies, which rotate by ciliary movement. These spherical bodies (tissue balls) stop rotating and disintegrate when exposed to a thermal stress. Tissue balls prepared from dissociated cells of Fungia sp. and Pavona divaricata were exposed to either elevated temperature (31 °C, with 25 °C as the control) or elevated temperature in the presence of exogenous antioxidants (ascorbic acid and catalase, or mannitol). The survival curves of tissue balls were markedly different between 31 and 25 °C. At 31 °C, most tissue balls disintegrated within 24 h, whereas at 25 °C, most tissue balls survived for more than 24 h. There was a negative correlation between survival time and the zooxanthella density of tissue balls at 31 °C, but no significant relationship was found at 25 °C. Antioxidants extended the survival time of tissue balls at high temperature, suggesting that zooxanthellae produce reactive oxygen species under stress. These results indicate that zooxanthellae produce harmful substances and damage coral cells under high-temperature stress. Tissue balls provide a good experimental system with which to study the effects of stress and various chemical reagents on corals cells.     

A simple technique for measuring buoyant weight increment of entire, transplanted coral colonies in the field

Estimating the impacts of global and local threats on coral reefs requires monitoring reef health and measuring coral growth and calcification rates at different time scales. This has traditionally been mostly performed in short-term experimental studies in which coral fragments were grown in the laboratory or in the field but measured ex situ. Practical techniques in which growth and measurements are performed over the long term in situ are rare. Apart from photographic approaches, weight increment measurements have also been applied. Past buoyant weight measurements under water involved a complicated and little-used apparatus. We introduce a new method that combines previous field and laboratory techniques to measure the buoyant weight of entire, transplanted corals under water. This method uses an electronic balance fitted into an acrylic glass underwater housing and placed atop of an acrylic glass cube. Within this cube, corals transplanted onto artificial bases can be attached to the balance and weighed at predetermined intervals while they continue growth in the field. We also provide a set of simple equations for the volume and weight determinations required to calculate net growth rates. The new technique is highly accurate: low error of weight determinations due to variation of coral density (< 0.08%) and low standard error (< 0.01%) for repeated measurements of the same corals. We outline a transplantation technique for properly preparing corals for such long-term in situ experiments and measurements.     

On the causes of density banding in skeletons of corals of the genus Montastraea

To obtain a reliable climate reconstruction from coral skeletons it is first necessary to understand the way these grow and incorporate information. Thickness of skeletal elements (exothecal and endothecal dissepiments, costae, septa, and theca-wall) as well as the spacing between exothecal and endothecal dissepiments of the four extant Atlantic species of Montastraea (M. annularis, M. faveolata, M. franksi and M. cavernosa) were measured through high and low density bands. Our results show that growth periodicity, controlled by the effect of temperature, is expressed in changes in thickness of costae and exothecal dissepiments in the four studied Montastraea species, with no changes in endothecal elements and theca-wall thickness which, in turn, has implications for research on inclusive records using these species. Spacing between both exothecal and endothecal dissepiments resulted without changes along the high and low density bands, and we found evidence that there is a rhythmical formation of these structures linked somehow to lunar cycles.     

Within-colony variation in inducibility of coral disease resistance

The abiotic environment influences a variety of ecological processes, including the emergence, transmission, and distribution of disease. In the oceans, increased temperatures associated with climate change are hypothesized to decrease host resistance and/or increase pathogen growth, virulence, or infectivity. Colonial organisms, such as corals, could face a unique challenge with respect to temperature and disease stress: heterogeneous within-colony distribution of constitutive and temperature-induced resistance to infection. This could facilitate disease if warming temperatures promote pathogen growth while decreasing resistance of some areas of the coral colony. Here, an experiment was used to test the hypothesis that temperature-induced disease resistance is heterogeneous within colonies of the sea fan coral, Gorgonia ventalina. Resistance, measured as activity of antifungal metabolites, increased (approx. 30%) with temperature only in young edge tissue, not in older center tissue, consistent with patterns of infection in older, larger sea fan colonies on Caribbean reefs.     

Engineering of coral reef larval supply through transplantation of nursery-farmed gravid colonies

The continuous worldwide degradation of coral reefs raises an urgent need for novel active restoration techniques as traditional conservation practices have failed to impede the incessant reefs' decline. While applying the “gardening coral reefs” methodology in Eilat (Red Sea, Israel), we examined reproductive outputs of naturally-grown and outplanted, nursery-farmed Stylophora pistillata colonies from three coral-transplantation trials (November 2005, May 2007, and September 2008), along three reproductive seasons. Surprisingly, transplanted colonies showed better reproductive capacities than the natal Stylophora colonies during > 4 post-transplantation years. A higher percentage of nursery-farmed colonies released planula larvae as compared to naturally-grown colonies. Gravid transplants also shed more planulae per colony, yielding significantly augmented numbers of total planulae over naturally developed S. pistillata colonies. Our results indicate that nursery-grown corals may be used to enhance reef resilience by contributing to the larval pool, forming an engineered larval dispersal instrument for reef rehabilitation.     

Regeneration of artificial injuries on scleractinian corals and coral/algal competition for newly formed substrate

Porites cylindrica and Porites lutea fragments of colonies were inflicted with five different injury types: chisel, file, Water Pik, osmotic and cement injuries. The fragments were maintained in outdoor aquaria for a period of 240 days under light intensities varying from 2-5% to 70-90% of incident surface photosynthetic active radiation (PAR₀). During the exposure, changes in weight of the fragments, the rates of regeneration of the injuries, abundance of algae and animals settled onto injured areas were monitored. The regeneration rate of the injuries depended on interspecific differences in corals, injury types, number and composition of algae and animals settled onto the lesions, and light and temperature conditions. Competitive interactions between polyps and settlers occurred after colonizers settled onto the damaged surface or the live tissue. It is noteworthy that recovered coral tissue generally overgrew about 100 algal species with or without inhibition of coral growth by algae. In the summer period, the cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscula covered some lesions (osmotic and cement) by 100%, thus reducing dramatically the regeneration rate of the inflicted injuries and also caused coral bleaching when in direct contact.     

Effects of the fish anesthetic, clove oil (eugenol), on coral health and growth

Ecological research within coral reefs often requires the use of anesthetics to immobilize organisms. It is therefore important to consider the effect of these chemicals on the surrounding flora and fauna, particularly to the corals themselves. We quantified the effects of clove oil, a commonly used fish anesthetic, on the growth and occurrence of bleaching in three species of corals: Acropora striata, Pocillopora verrucosa, and Porites australiensis. We compared coral responses to five treatments: a gradient of four clove oil concentrations (0-28%) in seawater, and one concentration of clove oil (14%) in ethanol. Each week, we assessed the presence of bleaching, and then applied the treatment. We measured growth over the duration of the 6-week experiment using the buoyant weight technique. Growth and bleaching showed a dose response to clove oil exposure, and the use of ethanol as a solvent had an additional deleterious effect, as also suggested by observed changes in concentrations of eugenol following field application. Overall, growth was reduced by 37.6% at the highest concentration (28% clove oil in seawater) relative to the control (0% clove oil). The reduction in growth was nearly as great (35.3% of the control) at half the concentration of clove oil (14%) when dissolved in ethanol. These results suggest the repeated use of clove oil (even without a solvent) can deleteriously affect corals.     

Vibrios dominate as culturable nitrogen-fixing bacteria of the Brazilian coral Mussismilia hispida

Taxonomic characterization was performed on the putative N₂-fixing microbiota associated with the coral species Mussismilia hispida, and with its sympatric species Palythoa caribaeorum, P. variabilis, and Zoanthus solanderi, off the coast of São Sebastião (São Paulo State, Brazil). The 95 isolates belonged to the Gammaproteobacteria according to the 16S rDNA gene sequences. In order to identify the isolates unambiguously, pyrH gene sequencing was carried out. The majority of the isolates (n=76) fell within the Vibrio core group, with the highest gene sequence similarity being towards Vibrio harveyi and Vibrio alginolyticus. Nineteen representative isolates belonging to V. harveyi (n=7), V. alginolyticus (n=8), V. campbellii (n=3), and V. parahaemolyticus (n=1) were capable of growing six successive times in nitrogen-free medium and some of them showed strong nitrogenase activity by means of the acetylene reduction assay (ARA). It was concluded that nitrogen fixation is a common phenotypic trait among Vibrio species of the core group. The fact that different Vibrio species can fix N₂ might explain why they are so abundant in the mucus of different coral species.     

Tolerance of apexes of coral Pocillopora damicornis L. to cryoprotectant solutions

In this study, we investigated the tolerance of Pocillopora damicornis apexes to treatments with solutions containing penetrating and non-penetrating cryoprotective agents (CPAs). CPAs were employed individually or in binary, tertiary or quaternary solutions. In some experiments apexes were treated successively with two CPA solutions with increasing total concentration. P. damicornis apexes withstood exposure for up to 30 min to solutions containing 0.6–0.8 M sucrose (Suc) or trehalose (Tre). When apexes were treated with binary cryoprotectant solutions containing Suc and ethylene glycol (EG), methanol (Meth), dimethyl sulfoxide (Me₂SO) or glycerol (Gly), the CPAs employed in combination with Suc could be ranked in the following order of decreasing tolerance: EG > Meth > Me₂SO > Gly. P. damicornis apexes tolerated exposure to complex CPA solutions containing Suc, Me₂SO, EG and/or Meth with a total molarity of 2.45 M. In experiments where two successive CPA solutions were employed, apexes withstood treatment with the second, more concentrated solution at 0 °C for up to 10 min. These preliminary results pave the way to the development of a cryopreservation protocol for P. damicornis apexes.     

Recovery from a near-lethal exposure to ultraviolet-C radiation in a scleractinian coral

Hermatypic (reef building) corals live in an environment characterized by high ambient levels of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and ultraviolet radiation (UVR). Photoadaptive mechanisms have evolved to protect the sensitive cell structures of the host coral and their photosynthetic, endosymbiotic zooxanthellae. Environmental stressors may destabilize the coral-zooxanthellae system resulting in the expulsion of zooxanthellae and/or loss of photosynthetic pigment within zooxanthellae, causing a condition known as bleaching. It is estimated that 1% of the world’s coral population is lost yearly, partly due to bleaching. Despite intensive research efforts, a single unified mechanism cannot explain this phenomenon. Although UVA and UVB cellular damage is well documented, UVC damage is rarely reported due to its almost complete absorption in the stratosphere. A small scale coral propagation system at the University of Maine was accidentally exposed to 15.5 h of UVC radiation (253.7 nm) from a G15T8 germicidal lamp, resulting in a cumulative surface irradiance of 8.39 × 10⁴ J m⁻². An experiment was designed to monitor the progression of UVC induced damage. Branch sections from affected scleractinian corals, Acropora yongei and Acropora formosa were submitted to histopathology to provide an historical record of tissue response. The death of gastrodermal cells and necrosis resulted in the release of intracellular zooxanthellae into the gastrovascular canals. Zooxanthellae were also injured as evidenced by pale coloration, increased vacuolization and loss of membrane integrity. The recovery of damaged coral tissue likely proceeds by re-epithelialization and zooxanthellae repopulation of gastrodermal cells by adjacent healthy tissue.     

The energy density of jellyfish: Estimates from bomb-calorimetry and proximate-composition

Two techniques are described to calculate energy densities for the bell, gonad and oral arm tissues of three scyphozoan jellyfish (Cyanea capillata, Rhizostoma octopus and Chrysaora hysoscella). First, bomb-calorimetry was used, a technique that is readily available and inexpensive. However, the reliability of this technique for gelatinous material is contentious. Second, further analysis involving the more labour intensive proximate-composition analysis (protein, fat and carbohydrate) was carried out on two species (C. capillata and R. octopus). These proximate data were subsequently converted to energy densities. The two techniques (bomb-calorimetry and proximate-composition) gave very similar estimates of energy density. Differences in energy density were found both amongst different species and between different tissues of the same species. Mean (± S.D.) energy density estimates for whole animals from bomb-calorimetry were 0.18 ± 0.05, 0.11 ± 0.04, and 0.10 ± 0.03 kJ g wet mass^− 1 for C. capillata, R. octopus, and C. hysoscella respectively. The implications of these low energy densities for species feeding on jellyfish are discussed.     

Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Inhibition studies with anions and sulfonamides of a new cytosolic enzyme from the scleractinian coral Stylophora pistillata

The catalytic activity and the inhibition of a new coral carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1), from the scleractinian coral Stylophora pistillata, STPCA-2, has been investigated. STPCA-2 has high catalytic activity for the physiological reaction being less sensitive to anion and sulfonamide inhibitors compared to STPCA, a coral enzyme previously described. The best STPCA-2 anion inhibitors were sulfamide, sulfamic acid, phenylboronic acid, and phenylarsonic acid (K_Is of 5.7-67.2 μM) whereas the best sulfonamide inhibitors were acetazolamide and dichlorophenamide (K_Is of 74-79 nM). Because this discriminatory effect between these two coral CAs, sulfonamides may be useful to better understand the physiological role of STPCA and STPCA-2 in corals and biomineralization processes.     

A simple method for the extraction and quantification of photopigments from Symbiodinium spp.

We have developed a simple, mild extraction procedure using methanol which, when coupled with HPLC analysis and diode array detection (DAD), can be used to quantify the major photopigments found in cultured Symbiodinium spp. Extracts were prepared by suspending, fresh or frozen (− 70 °C), wet cell pellets in methanol and sonicating or not sonicating the cell suspensions before soaking the cells for 2 h in an ice bath. To assist the soaking process, cell suspensions were vortex mixed at 30 min intervals. After soaking, 0.5 M ammonium acetate buffer was added (1 part buffer to 9 parts methanol) before suspensions were stored over night at − 20 °C. Greater than 92% the recoverable pigment was obtained in the initial extraction of the four major photopigments, chlorophyll c, peridinin, diadinoxanthin, and chlorophyll a. Neither sonication nor freezing substantially increased the recovery of photopigments extracted with methanol. Extraction by other commonly used solvents such as acetone or acetone:water with or without freezing and sonication were less effective.     

Effects of competition and herbivory on interactions between a hard coral and a brown alga

Despite widespread acceptance of the negative effects of macroalgae on corals, very few studies have experimentally tested the competitive nature of the interaction, and most have ignored the potential effects of corals on algae. We report the effects of herbivory and competition on the growth of the branching scleractinian coral Porites cylindrica Dana and the creeping foliose brown alga Lobophora variegata (Lamouroux) Womersley, on an inshore fringing reef of the central Great Barrier Reef. L. variegata overgrows branches of P. cylindrica from the base up, forming a distinct boundary between the alga and the coral tissue. The experiment used exclusion cages to test for effects of herbivores, and removal of algae and coral tissue, at their interaction boundary, to test for inhibition of the competitors by each other. Comparisons of coral branches with the algae present or removed showed that the presence and overgrowth of the alga caused significant coral tissue mortality. Comparisons of branches with coral tissue unmanipulated or damaged showed that the coral inhibited the overgrowth by L. variegata, but that the algae were markedly superior competitors. Importantly, reduced herbivory resulted in faster algal growth and consequent overgrowth and mortality of coral tissue, demonstrating the critical importance of herbivory to the outcome of the competitive interaction.     

A comparison of photographic analyses used to quantify zooxanthella density and pigment concentrations in Cnidarians

Many cnidarians exist in an obligatory mutualism with dinoflagellates commonly called zooxanthellae. When these symbioses are stressed, zooxanthella densities often decrease (i.e., bleaching), resulting in reduced host fitness or mortality. Because zooxanthellae play a prominent role in the coloration of hosts, several analyses of reflected spectra from photographic images have been developed to quantify zooxanthella densities and serve as a proxy for invasive sampling methods. To date these techniques have not been compared. In this study, global information system (GIS) tools, commonly used with aerial and satellite images, and photographs of healthy and bleached sea anemones, Aiptasia pallida (Verrill), were used to compare these image analysis methods. Zooxanthella densities and chlorophyll-a concentrations were correlated with image brightness (i.e., digital number) in: the red, green, and blue bands (RGB); the average of the three RGB bands (RGB/3); intensity and saturation bands (IHS); and using a principal components analysis (PCA) of the RGB bands. RGB brightness correlations with zooxanthella densities and chlorophyll-a concentrations were highest using the blue band, followed by green, then red. Using any one band within RGB, however, restricts comparisons to similar color morphs. RGB/3, IHS or PCA transformations enable intra and inter-specific comparisons where colors may vary. Among these transformations, PCA and intensity had higher correlations, followed by RGB/3, then saturation. RGB/3 and IHS, unlike PCA, ignore the correlations between the three RGB bands, treating each pixel independently. PCA uses these correlations, and in doing so lessens the effects of heteroscedasticity in the data. In addition, the observed reciprocal relationship of intensity and saturation may serve as a standardized criterion for bleaching. Finally, this study demonstrates that GIS has broad interdisciplinary applications for spatial and spectral analyses from the individual colony to reef scale assessments.     

Effects of pressure on swimming behavior in planula larvae of the coral Porites astreoides (Cnidaria, Scleractinia)

Mechanisms governing the behavior of coral planulae are not well understood, particularly those manifesting themselves between the time when the larvae are released and when they settle. Larvae from the hermatypic coral Porites astreoides Lamarck were exposed to different levels of hydrostatic pressure—103.4, 206.9, 310.3, 413.8, and 517.1 kPa (including ambient pressure). Data were collected at stops of the above pressures for 15 min each, respectively. This was done in both an increasing sequence and a decreasing one. When exposed to increases in pressure from 103.4 kPa, larvae swam upward (negative barotaxis) in a spiraling motion. Upon exposure to decreasing pressure from 517.1 kPa, larvae moved downward (positive barotaxis), but the magnitude of the vertical movement was much less than in the case of increasing pressure. This suggests that these larvae are more sensitive to increased pressure than decreasing pressure. High variance was also observed in the responses of these larvae at both the intra- and inter-colony levels. Thus, this behavioral trait is variable within the population. The trait may be genetically based, and thus may be susceptible to alteration by natural selection, although this remains to be demonstrated. This study is the first to document these behavioral mechanisms in coral larvae.     

Microsensor study of photosynthesis and calcification in the scleractinian coral, Galaxea fascicularis: active internal carbon cycle

Sources of inorganic carbon (Ci) for photosynthesis and calcification and the mechanisms involved in their uptake in scleractinian corals were investigated in microcolonies of Galaxea fascicularis. Direct measurements of Ca²⁺, pH and O₂ on the surface and inside the polyp's coelenteron were made with microsensors. Gross photosynthesis (Pg) and net photosynthesis (Pn) were measured on the surface. Light respiration (LR) was calculated from Pg and Pn. The effect of light/dark and dark/light switches on Ca²⁺ and pH dynamics on the surface and inside the coelenteron were followed. To evaluate the different sources of Ci for photosynthesis and calcification, Ci-free seawater and 6-Ethoxyzolamide and Acetazolamide, inhibitors for carbonic anhydrase (CA) were used.In normal seawater, Pg was about seven times higher than Pn, the LR was ca. 80-90% of the Pg. Thus, most of the O₂ produced in Pg are immediately consumed in respiration, indicating the presence of a highly active internal C-cycle. As the internal C-cycle is highly active, a large part of the Ci for calcification will have passed through the metabolism of the symbiont. The high LR provides ATP for energy requiring processes in light.Ci for photosynthesis and calcification can come from seawater in the form of free Ci, respiration of photosynthates (internal C-cycle) or respiration of the ingested plankton. These sources form a common carbon pool (C-pool) that is used for the different processes.In Ci-free seawater, Pg decreased by about 12.5%, indicating that most of the photosynthetically fixed Ci can temporarily be supplied from internal sources. The initial decalcification, observed directly upon the switch to Ci-free seawater, showed that the Ca-pools in the coral are exchangeable. Part of the Pg in Ci-free seawater may depend on this decalcification for its Ci supply.Three localities of CA were defined. One on the surface facing seawater and one on endodermal cells facing the coelenteron, while the third is intracellular. The inhibition of CA decreased Pg by about 30%, while it increased the concentration of Ca²⁺ as a result of a decrease in its precipitation. The reduction of photosynthesis and calcification by CA inhibition demonstrated that both processes need the enzyme for the supply of Ci. The pH on the surface and inside the coelenteron decreased upon 6-Ethoxyzolamide addition indicating a role of CA in pH control.     

Complementary (secondary) metabolites in an octocoral competing with a scleractinian coral: effects of varying nutrient regimes

Competitive interactions between two sessile, epibenthic species were investigated on the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) in the presence and absence of added nutrients, as part of the Enrichment of Nutrients on Coral Reefs Experiment (ENCORE). Sarcophyton ehrenbergi Marenzeller (Octocorallia: Alcyonacea), an alcyonacean soft coral, and Pocillopora damicornis (Linnaeus), a scleractinian coral, were relocated and placed in contact with each other on large plastic grids on each of 12 micro-atolls within the One Tree Island (OTI) lagoon (23°30′S, 152°96′E, GBR). These micro-atolls were allocated in equal-sized groups to three enrichment treatments (addition of nitrogen, N; addition of phosphorus, P; addition of both nitrogen and phosphorus, N+P) and one control. Non-relocated (NR) and relocated colonies were also monitored as controls. After relocation and 1 year of nutrient enrichment, concentrations of a terpenoid complementary metabolite—sarcophytoxide—and wax esters were analyzed in colonies of S. ehrenbergi that had been exposed to elevated concentrations of N, P, N+P and compared with colonies on the non-nutrient-enriched control. Non-relocated control colonies from the natural environment were monitored over a period of 1 year and compared to colonies relocated to the control micro-atolls to assess handling effects. Analyses were performed on non-interacting S. ehrenbergi colonies, S. ehrenbergi colonies in experimental contact with P. damicornis colonies, and on non-interacting S. ehrenbergi colonies from the site of initial collection. Significant differences were found between sarcophytoxide levels in colonies of S. ehrenbergi in contact with P. damicornis vs. control/non-contact colonies; contact colonies had higher levels of this metabolite. Non-relocated control colonies of S. ehrenbergi exhibited significantly higher levels of sarcophytoxide than relocated control colonies. Augmentation of nutrient levels in micro-atolls significantly increased sarcophytoxide levels in S. ehrenbergi colonies relative to colonies on the control micro-atolls, although this response was not strong. Concentrations of fatty esters increased significantly through time in S. ehrenbergi colonies in their natural setting (non-relocated controls). This variability was not observed in relocated colonies in the treatment and control micro-atolls, irrespective of contact with P. damicornis. Concentrations of fatty esters in colonies of S. ehrenbergi in contact with P. damicornis were significantly lower than control/non-contact colonies, indicating that there is a cost in terms of stored energy reserves for the production of additional complementary metabolites when involved in competition for space. Augmentation of P levels in micro-atolls induced significant increases in fatty ester levels within S. ehrenbergi colonies vs. colonies in control micro-atolls, or in micro-atolls treated with added N or N+P together. These findings indicate that interspecific competition for space between a scleractinian coral and an alcyonacean soft coral and/or changes in the environmental nutrient regime can influence concentrations of complementary/secondary metabolites in the alcyonacean coral and the organism's stored energy reserves.     

The morphological distinction between the postcranial skeleton of Cervalces/Alces and Megaloceros giganteus and comparison between the two Alceini genera from the Upper Pliocene-Holocene of Western Europe

Alces alces, Cervalces and Megaloceros giganteus are deer of approximately the same size whose limb bones could be exchanged if fragmentary so morphological features are needed, enabling identification of postcranials remains. In this work the limb bone features described by Pfeiffer (1999a) as distinguishing Cervalces latifrons from M. giganteus are re-analyzed and further developed, considering also the vertebral column, the articular girdles and the carpals and tarsal elements. This analysis is extended to the other Cervalces species (C. gallicus, C. carnutorum and C. scotti) and to the present-day moose Alces alces. It results in a substantial uniformity in the postcranial skeleton of the species of the genus Cervalces, confirming what has already been stated by Sher (1987), that the Alceini, in the Upper Pliocene, constituted an already well-defined morphological type that did not undergo further structural postcranial remodeling.