针刺对PD胃肠功能障碍大鼠不同部位GDNF含量及胃肠生理指标的影响

摘要 目的：探讨不同针刺对帕金森（Parkinson''s Disease）胃肠功能障碍大鼠中脑黑质、胃、结肠中胶质细胞源性神经营养因子(GDNF)含量变化影响。方法：腹腔注射鱼藤酮溶液建立PD胃肠功能障碍模型并用阿普吗啡（APO）诱导实验检测。将60只已造模大鼠按随机数字表法分成模型组、假手术组、西药组、空白组、调神畅志组和常规针刺共6组,给予相应治疗2周。观察各组大鼠体重变化,检测粪便含水率、胃内容物残留率及小肠推进率,采用免疫组织化学法及ELISA法对黑质、胃、结肠GDNF含量检测。结果：体重和粪便含水率方面：西药组及两针刺组较模型组比,差异显著（P＜0.01）,西药组改善程度优于调神组（P＜0.05）,调神组改善程度优于常规组（P＜0.05）。小肠推进率和胃内容物残留率：西药组及两针刺组与模型组相比差异明显（P＜0.01）;西药组改善优于调神组（P＜0.05）,调神组优于常规组（P＜0.05）。中脑黑质、胃、结肠GDNF变化：空白组及假手术组含量高于模型组（P＜0.01）;西药组及两针刺组较模型组相比,含量升高（P＜0.01）,西药组优于调神组（P＜0.05）,调神组均优于常规组（P＜0.05）。结论：针刺治疗可提高PD胃肠功能障碍大鼠黑质、胃、结肠中GDNF含量,且调神组优于常规组,与西药组接近。调神畅志针法对PD胃肠功能障碍作用的原理可能是因为提升了结肠、脑、胃的GDNF含量来完成。     

Neuroprotective effects of erythropoietin on 6-hydroxydopamine-treated ventral mesencephalic dopamine-rich cultures

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder with motor symptoms caused by the loss of dopaminergic (DA) cells and consequently dopamine release in the nigrostriatal system. In vivo and in vitro 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) PD models are widely used to study the effect of striatal dopamine depletion as well as novel neuroprotective or restorative therapeutic strategies for PD. In the present study, we investigated in vitro the toxicity of 6-OHDA on DA neurons derived from E14 rat ventral mesencephalon (VM) and the neuroprotective efficiency of erythropoietin (Epo) on VM-derived cell cultures against 6-OHDA toxicity. Using E14 VM-derived DA-rich primary cultures, we could demonstrate that 6-OHDA toxicity works in a time-and concentration-dependent way, and leads to cell death not only in DA cells but also in non-DA cells in direct relation to concentration and incubation times. In addition, we found that 6-OHDA toxicity induces caspase-3 activation and an increment of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) in VM-derived cultures. When 6-OHDA-treated VMs were cultured in the presence of the anti-apoptotic protein erythropoietin (Epo), the total neuronal population, including the DA neurons, was protected. However, untreated VM cultures exposed to Epo showed an increase in the total neuronal population, but not an additional increase in DA neuron cell number.These findings suggest that 6-OHDA toxicity is time and concentration-dependent and does not exclusively affect DA neurons. In high concentration and long incubation times, 6-OHDA influences the survival of other neuronal and non-neuronal cell populations derived from the VM cultures. 6-OHDA toxicity induces caspase-3 activation, indicating cell death via the apoptotic pathway which could be restricted or even prevented by pre-exposure to Epo, known to interact via the apoptotic pathway. Our results support and expand on previous findings showing that Epo is an interesting candidate molecule to mediate neuroprotective effects on DA neurons in PD. Furthermore, it could be used in promoting the survival of DA neurons after transplantation in clinical trials.     

Neuroprotective effects of Astragaloside IV in 6-hydroxydopamine-treated primary nigral cell culture

Parkinson's disease (PD) is caused by a progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Oxidative stress and neural degeneration are suggested to be involved in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. In the present study, Astragaloside IV (AS-IV) extracted from the dried root of Astragalus membranaceus, a well-known Chinese medicine used for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, was investigated for its capacity to protect dopaminergic neurons in experimental Parkinson's disease. By examining the effect of AS-IV on 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA)-induced loss of dopaminergic neurons in primary nigral culture, we found that AS-IV pretreatment significantly and dose-dependently attenuated 6-OHDA-induced loss of dopaminergic neurons. Neuronal fiber length studies showed that massive neuronal cell death with degenerated neurons was observed in those cultures incubated with 6-OHDA, whereas in AS-IV co-treatments most dopaminergic neurons were seen to be intact and sprouting. In flow cytometric analysis, AS-IV resulted in a marked and dose-dependent rescue in tyrosine hydrolase (TH)-immunopositive cells from 6-OHDA-induced degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. Double immunofluorescence revealed that AS-IV treatment alone at concentrations of 100 and 200 μM increased the level of TH and NOS (nitrite oxide synthase) immunoreactivities; however, the protective effect of AS-IV on TH and NOS immunopositive cells in 6-OHDA treated nigral cell cultures was only seen at a concentration of 100 μM. These findings show that AS-IV can protect dopaminergic neurons against 6-OHDA-induced degeneration. Besides the neuroprotective effect, AS-IV alone promoted neurite outgrowth and increased TH and NOS immunoreactive of dopaminergic neurons. The neuroprotective and neurosprouting effects of AS-IV are specific for dopaminergic neurons and it has therapeutic potential in the treatment of PD.     

Neuroprotective effects of ginkgetin against neuroinjury in Parkinson's disease model induced by MPTP via chelating iron

Abstract

Disruption of neuronal iron homeostasis and oxidative stress are closely related to the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). Ginkgetin, a natural biflavonoid isolated from leaves of Ginkgo biloba L, has many known effects, including anti-inflammatory, anti-influenza virus, and anti-fungal activities, but its underlying mechanism of the neuroprotective effects in PD remains unclear. The present study utilized PD models induced by 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP⁺) and 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) to explore the neuroprotective ability of ginkgetin in vivo and in vitro. Our results showed that ginkgetin could provide significant protection from MPP⁺-induced cell damage in vitro by decreasing the levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species and maintaining mitochondrial membrane potential. Meanwhile, ginkgetin dramatically inhibited cell apoptosis induced by MPP+ through the caspase-3 and Bcl2/Bax pathway. Moreover, ginkgetin significantly improved sensorimotor coordination in a mouse PD model induced by MPTP by dramatically inhibiting the decrease of tyrosine hydroxylase expression in the substantia nigra and superoxide dismutase activity in the striatum. Interestingly, ginkgetin could strongly chelate ferrous ion and thereby inhibit the increase of the intracellular labile iron pool through downregulating L-ferritin and upregulating transferrin receptor 1. These results indicate that the neuroprotective mechanism of ginkgetin against neurological injury induced by MPTP occurs via regulating iron homeostasis. Therefore, ginkgetin may provide neuroprotective therapy for PD and iron metabolism disorder related diseases.     

Neuroprotective potentials of neurotrophin rich olfactory ensheathing cell's conditioned media against 6OHDA-induced oxidative damage

Abstract

On the basis of recent reports, we propose that impaired neurotrophin signaling (PI3k/Akt), low antioxidant levels, and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) conjointly participate in the progressive events responsible for the dopaminergic cell loss in Parkinson's disease (PD). In the present study we tried to target these deficits collectively through multiple neurotrophic factors (NTFs) support in the form of Olfactory Ensheathing Cell's Conditioned Media (OEC CM) using human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cell line exposed to 6 hydroxydopamine (6OHDA). 6OHDA exposure induced, oxidative stress-mediated apoptotic cell death viz. enhanced ROS generation, diffused cytosolic cytochrome c (cyt c), impaired Bcl-2: Bax levels along with decrease in GSH content. These changes were accompanied by loss in Akt phosphorylation and TH levels in SH-SY5Y cells. OEC CM significantly checked apoptotic cell death by preserving pAkt levels which coincided with enhanced GSH and suppressed oxidative injury. Functional integrity of OEC CM supported cells was evident by maintained tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression. Intercepting Akt signaling by specific inhibitor LY294002 blocked the protective effect. Taken together our findings provide important evidence that the key to protective effect of multiple NTF support via OEC CM is enhanced Akt survival signaling which promotes antioxidant defense leading to suppression of oxidative damage.     

血清pro-BDNF、α-syn、RANTES水平在不同H-Y分期帕金森病患者中的变化及与认知功能障碍的关系

摘要 目的：探讨血清脑源性神经营养因子前体蛋白（pro-BDNF）、α-突触核蛋白（α-syn）、活化T细胞趋化因子（RANTES）水平在不同Hoehn-Yahr（H-Y）分期帕金森病（PD）患者中的变化及与认知功能障碍的关系。方法：选取2019年11月～2021年11月成都市第三人民医院收治的92例PD患者,将其按照H-Y分期的差异分作早期组（H-Y分期1～2期）45例以及中晚期组（H-Y分期3～5期）47例,另取我院同期50例健康体检志愿者作为对照组。比较各组血清pro-BDNF、α-syn、RANTES水平,以Spearman相关性分析血清pro-BDNF、α-syn、RANTES水平与PD患者H-Y分期的相关性。采用蒙特利尔认知评估量表（MoCA）评估认知功能,并据此将所有患者分为认知功能障碍组和无认知功能障碍组,以单因素及多因素Logistic回归分析PD患者认知功能障碍的影响因素。结果：早期组和中晚期组的血清pro-BDNF、α-syn、RANTES水平均高于对照组,且中晚期组上述各项指标水平高于早期组（P＜0.05）。Spearman相关性分析结果显示,血清pro-BDNF、α-syn、RANTES水平均与PD患者H-Y分期呈正相关（P＜0.05）。单因素分析结果显示,PD患者是否发生认知功能障碍与其年龄、病程、受教育年限以及血清pro-BDNF、α-syn、RANTES水平有关（P＜0.05）。进一步多因素Logistic回归分析结果显示,年龄偏大、病程较长以及血清pro-BDNF、α-syn、RANTES水平升高均是PD患者认知功能障碍的危险因素,而受教育年限较长是认知功能障碍的保护因素（P＜0.05）。结论：血清pro-BDNF、α-syn、RANTES水平在PD患者中异常升高,且与H-Y分期呈正相关,还与患者认知功能障碍密切相关。     

Effects of GDNF and LIF on mouse spermatogonial stem cells proliferation in vitro

Spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) are the only type of cells that transmit genes to the subsequent generations. The proliferation, cultivation and identification of SSCs in vitro are critical to understanding of male infertility, genetic resources and conservation of endangered species. To investigate the effects of glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) on the proliferation of mouse SSCs in vitro, supplement of GDNF and/or LIF were designed to culture SSCs. The testes of 6–8 d mouse were harvested and digested by two-step enzyme digestion method. The SSCs and Sertoli cells were separated by differential plating. Then the SSCs were identified by alkaline phosphatase staining, RT-PCR and indirect immunofluorescence cell analysis. The cellular proliferation capacity was measured by methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium assay. The results showed that addition of 20 and 40 ng/ml of GDNF could strongly promote growth of mouse SSCs (p < 0.05). There was no significant difference between LIF treatment groups and the control group in promoting proliferation of the mouse SSCs (p > 0.05). However, the combination of 20 ng/ml GDNF and 1,000 U/ml LIF could significantly enhance the invitro proliferation of mouse SSCs (p < 0.05), and the OD₄₉₀ value was 0.696 at day 5 of culture when the density of SSCs was 5–10 × 10⁴ cells/ml.     

血清BDNF、IGF-1及CysC水平与帕金森病患者自主神经功能障碍的关系研究

摘要 目的：研究血清脑源性神经营养因子（BDNF）、胰岛素样生长因子（IGF）-1及胱抑素C（CysC）水平与帕金森病（PD）患者自主神经功能障碍的关系。方法：188例PD患者根据是否发生自主神经功能障碍分为自主神经功能障碍组（n=63）、非自主神经功能障碍组（n=125）。另选取健康志愿者140例为对照组。比较三组BDNF、IGF-1水平。采用多因素Logistic回归分析影响因素。结果：对照组、非自主神经功能障碍组、自主神经功能障碍组BDNF、IGF-1水平依次下降,CysC水平依次升高（P＜0.05）。血清BDNF、IGF-1低水平、血清CysC高水平、SSR异常、H-Y分期2.5~4期是PD患者自主神经功能障碍的危险因素（P＜0.05）。结论：血清BDNF、IGF-1低水平及CysC高水平促进PD患者自主神经功能障碍的发生发展。     

Shp-2 positively regulates brain-derived neurotrophic factor-promoted survival of cultured ventral mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons through a brain immunoglobulin-like molecule with tyrosine-based activation motifs/Shp substrate-1

To examine the roles of Shp-2, a cytoplasmic tyrosine phosphatase, in neuronal survival, we generated and used recombinant adenoviruses expressing wild type and phosphatase-inactive (C/S), phosphatase domain-deficient (delta P) and constitutively active (D61A and E76A) mutants of Shp-2. We found that wild-type Shp-2 enhanced brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)-promoted survival of cultured ventral mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons. In contrast, the C/S and delta P mutants of Shp-2 did not affect survival. In addition, the constitutively active D61A and E76A mutants mimicked BDNF and promoted survival. Furthermore, to examine the effects of BIT/SHPS-1, a substrate of Shp-2, on the BDNF-promoted survival, we generated adenovirus vectors expressing wild-type BIT/SHPS-1 and its 4F mutant in which all tyrosine residues in the cytoplasmic domain of BIT/SHPS-1 were replaced with phenylalanine. We found that BDNF-promoted survival of cultured mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons was enhanced by expression of the 4F mutant but not of wild-type BIT/SHPS-1. In addition, we found that co-expression of wild-type BIT/SHPS-1 with Shp-2 significantly enhanced the survival-promoting effect of BDNF on cultured mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons. These results indicated that Shp-2 positively regulates the survival-promoting effect of BDNF on cultured ventral mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons. Dephosphorylation of BIT/SHPS-1 by Shp-2 may participate in BDNF-stimulated survival signaling.     

Minocycline attenuates microglial activation but fails to mitigate striatal dopaminergic neurotoxicity: role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha

Activated microglia are implicated in the pathogenesis of disease-, trauma- and toxicant-induced damage to the CNS, and strategies to modulate microglial activation are gaining impetus. A novel action of the tetracycline derivative minocycline is the ability to inhibit inflammation and free radical formation, factors that influence microglial activation. Minocycline is therefore being tested as a neuroprotective agent to alleviate CNS damage, although findings so far have yielded mixed results. Here, we showed that administration of a single low dose of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) or methamphetamine (METH), a paradigm that causes selective degeneration of striatal dopaminergic nerve terminals without affecting the cell body in substantia nigra, increased the expression of mRNAs encoding microglia-associated factors F4/80, interleukin (IL)-1alpha, IL-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1, CCL2) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha. Minocycline treatment attenuated MPTP- or METH-mediated microglial activation, but failed to afford neuroprotection. Lack of neuroprotection was shown to be due to the inability of minocycline to abolish the induction of TNF-alpha and its receptors, thereby failing to modulate TNF signaling. Thus, TNF-alpha appeared to be an obligatory component of dopaminergic neurotoxicity. To address this possibility, we examined the effects of MPTP or METH in mice lacking genes encoding IL-6, CCL2 or TNF receptor (TNFR)1/2. Deficiency of either IL-6 or CCL2 did not alter MPTP neurotoxicity. However, deficiency of both TNFRs protected against the dopaminergic neurotoxicity of MPTP. Taken together, our findings suggest that attenuation of microglial activation is insufficient to modulate neurotoxicity as transient activation of microglia may suffice to initiate neurodegeneration. These findings support the hypothesis that TNF-alpha may play a role in the selective vulnerability of the nigrostriatal pathway associated with dopaminergic neurotoxicity and perhaps Parkinson's disease.     

LC/MS analysis of cardiolipins in substantia nigra and plasma of rotenone-treated rats: Implication for mitochondrial dysfunction in Parkinson's disease

Abstract

Exposure to rotenone in vivo results in selective degeneration of dopaminergic neurons and development of neuropathologic features of Parkinson's disease (PD). As rotenone acts as an inhibitor of mitochondrial respiratory complex I, we employed oxidative lipidomics to assess oxidative metabolism of a mitochondria-specific phospholipid, cardiolipin (CL), in substantia nigra (SN) of exposed animals. We found a significant reduction in oxidizable polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)-containing CL molecular species. We further revealed increased contents of mono-oxygenated CL species at late stages of the exposure. Notably, linoleic acid in sn-1 position was the major oxidation substrate yielding its mono-hydroxy- and epoxy-derivatives whereas more readily “oxidizable” fatty acid residues (arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids) remained non-oxidized. Elevated levels of PUFA CLs were detected in plasma of rats exposed to rotenone. Characterization of oxidatively modified CL molecular species in SN and detection of PUFA-containing CL species in plasma may contribute to better understanding of the PD pathogenesis and lead to the development of new biomarkers of mitochondrial dysfunction associated with this disease.     

Regulation of autophagy by polyphenols: Paving the road for treatment of neurodegeneration

In the present paper, we will discuss on the importance of autophagy in the central nervous system, and outline the relation between autophagic pathways and the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. The potential therapeutic benefits of naturally occurring phytochemicals as pharmacological modulators of autophagy will also be addressed. Our findings provide renewed insight on the molecular modes of protection by polyphenols, which is likely to be at least in part mediated not only by their potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, but also through modulation of autophagic processes to remove the aberrant protein aggregates.     

Preventive effect of rikkunshito on gastric motor function inhibited by l-dopa in rats

We previously reported that ghrelin prevented l-dopa (LD)-induced inhibition of gastric emptying (GE) of a non-nutrient solution in rats. Parkinson's disease treatment involves the combined administration of l-dopa with the enzyme l-amino acid decarboxylase inhibitor, carbidopa (CD) to reduce peripheral formation of dopamine. We investigated the effect LD/CD given orogastrically (og) on GE of a non-nutrient or nutrient meal and whether og pretreatment with rikkunshito, a kampo medicine clinically used to treat gastroparesis, influenced LD/CD effect on GE and postprandial antral and duodenal motility in conscious rats. LD/CD (20/2 mg kg⁻¹) decreased significantly GE to 26.3 ± 6.0% compared to 61.2 ± 3.2% in og vehicle monitored 20-min after a non-nutrient meal and to 41.9 ± 5.8% compared to 72.9 ± 5.2% in og vehicle monitored 60 min after a nutrient meal. Rikkunshito (0.5 or 1.0 g kg⁻¹) reduced the LD/CD (20/2 mg kg⁻¹) inhibition of GE of non-nutrient meal (36.9 ± 7.4% and 46.6 ± 4.8% respectively vs. 12.1 ± 7.4% in og vehicle plus LD/CD) while having no effect alone (56.6 ± 8.5%). The ghrelin antagonist, [d-Lys³]-GHRP-6 (1 mg kg⁻¹) injected intraperitoneally partially reversed rikkunshito preventive effect on LD/CD-inhibited GE. Rikkunshito (1.0 g kg⁻¹) blocked LD/CD (20/2 mg kg⁻¹)-induced delayed GE of a nutrient meal and the reduction of postprandial antral motility. In 6-hydroxydopamine-induced Parkinson's disease rat model, rikkunshito (1.0 g kg⁻¹, og) also prevented LD/CD-inhibited gastric emptying of a nutrient meal and enhanced fasting plasma levels of acylated ghrelin. These data indicate that oral rikkunshito alleviates the delayed GE induced by LD/CD in naïve and PD rat model in part through ghrelin-related mechanisms.     

Discovery of catalytically active orthologues of the Parkinson's disease kinase PINK1: analysis of substrate specificity and impact of mutations

Missense mutations of the phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN)-induced kinase 1 (PINK1) gene cause autosomal-recessive Parkinson's disease. To date, little is known about the intrinsic catalytic properties of PINK1 since the human enzyme displays such low kinase activity in vitro. We have discovered that, in contrast to mammalian PINK1, insect orthologues of PINK1 we have investigated-namely Drosophila melanogaster (dPINK1), Tribolium castaneum (TcPINK1) and Pediculus humanus corporis (PhcPINK1)-are active as judged by their ability to phosphorylate the generic substrate myelin basic protein. We have exploited the most active orthologue, TcPINK1, to assess its substrate specificity and elaborated a peptide substrate (PINKtide, KKWIpYRRSPRRR) that can be employed to quantify PINK1 kinase activity. Analysis of PINKtide variants reveal that PINK1 phosphorylates serine or threonine, but not tyrosine, and we show that PINK1 exhibits a preference for a proline at the +1 position relative to the phosphorylation site. We have also, for the first time, been able to investigate the effect of Parkinson's disease-associated PINK1 missense mutations, and found that nearly all those located within the kinase domain, as well as the C-terminal non-catalytic region, markedly suppress kinase activity. This emphasizes the crucial importance of PINK1 kinase activity in preventing the development of Parkinson's disease. Our findings will aid future studies aimed at understanding how the activity of PINK1 is regulated and the identification of physiological substrates.     

Subcellular expression and neuroprotective effects of SK channels in human dopaminergic neurons

Small-conductance Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ channel activation is an emerging therapeutic approach for treatment of neurological diseases, including stroke, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and schizophrenia. Our previous studies showed that activation of SK channels exerted neuroprotective effects through inhibition of NMDAR-mediated excitotoxicity. In this study, we tested the therapeutic potential of SK channel activation of NS309 (25 μM) in cultured human postmitotic dopaminergic neurons in vitro conditionally immortalized and differentiated from human fetal mesencephalic cells. Quantitative RT-PCR and western blotting analysis showed that differentiated dopaminergic neurons expressed low levels of SK2 channels and high levels of SK1 and SK3 channels. Further, protein analysis of subcellular fractions revealed expression of SK2 channel subtype in mitochondrial-enriched fraction. Mitochondrial complex I inhibitor rotenone (0.5 μM) disrupted the dendritic network of human dopaminergic neurons and induced neuronal death. SK channel activation reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, while it preserved the dendritic network, cell viability and ATP levels after rotenone challenge. Mitochondrial dysfunction and delayed dopaminergic cell death were prevented by increasing and/or stabilizing SK channel activity. Overall, our findings show that activation of SK channels provides protective effects in human dopaminergic neurons, likely via activation of both membrane and mitochondrial SK channels. Thus, SK channels are promising therapeutic targets for neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson''s disease, where dopaminergic cell loss is associated with progression of the disease.     

"Passive stabilization" of striatal extracellular dopamine across the lesion spectrum encompassing the presymptomatic phase of Parkinson's disease: a voltammetric study in the 6-OHDA-lesioned rat

Symptoms of Parkinson's disease do not present until the degeneration of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons is nearly complete. Maintenance of dopaminergic tone governing striatal efferents is postulated to preserve motor control during the presymptomatic phase, but the neuroadaptation responsible for normalization is not completely understood. In particular, the prevailing view that surviving dopaminergic neurons compensate by up-regulating release has been difficult to demonstrate directly. Here we investigate dopaminergic neurotransmission in the hemiparkinsonian rat using fast-scan cyclic voltammetry at carbon-fiber microelectrodes. Electrical stimulation was used to elicit extracellular dopamine levels mimicking the steady-state dynamics of tonic dopaminergic signaling. In agreement with microdialysis studies, evoked steady-state dopamine levels remained constant over the entire lesion spectrum (0 to approximately 85%) observed during the presymptomatic stage. Kinetic analysis of the voltammetric recordings demonstrated that evoked dopamine concentrations were normalized without plasticity of dopamine release and uptake, suggesting that the primary mechanisms controlling ambient levels of extracellular dopamine were not actively altered. In the present study, we formalize this neuroadaptation as "passive stabilization" . We further propose that passive stabilization is mediated by the simple physical principles of diffusion and steady state, is predicated on extrasynaptic transmission, and forms the basis for a new compensation model of preclinical parkinsonism.